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14-September-2008 18:02:46 - skeleton Front view of a skeleton of an adult human Front view of a skeleton of an adult human Back view of a skeleton of an adult human Back view of a skeleton of an adult human The human skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and supplemented by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors muscles, and protects organs such as the brain, lungs and heart. The longest and heaviest bone in the body is the femur and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear. In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 20% of the total body weight, and half of this weight is water. Fused bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium. Not all bones are interconnected directly: There are six bones in the middle ear called the ossicles three on each side that articulate only with each other. The hyoid bone, which is located in the neck and serves as the point of attachment for the tongue, does not articulate with any other bones in the body, being supported by muscles and ligaments. Contents 1 Development 2 Segmental pattern 2.1 Organization 2.2 Bones 3 Function 3.1 Support 3.2 Movement 3.3 Protection 3.4 Blood cell production 3.5 Storage 3.6 Endocrine regulation 4 Sex-based differences 5 Disorders 5.1 Osteoporosis 6 Gallery 7 References 8 See also 9 External links Development Early in gestation, a fetus has a cartilaginous skeleton from which the long bones and most other bones gradually form throughout the remaining gestation period and for years after birth in a process called endochondral ossification. The flat bones of the skull and the clavicles are formed from connective tissue in a process known as intramembranous ossification, and ossification of the mandible occurs in the fibrous membrane covering the outer surfaces of Meckel's cartilages. At birth a newborn baby has approximately 270 bones, whereas on average an adult human has 206 bones these numbers can vary slightly from individual to individual. The difference comes from a number of small bones that fuse together during growth, such as the sacrum and coccyx of the vertebral column. The sacrum the bone at the base of the spine consists of five bones which are separate at birth but fuse together into a solid structure in later years. An infant is born with zones of cartilage, called epiphyseal plates, between segments of bone to allow further growth. Growing is usually completed between ages 13 and 19, at which time the epiphyseal plates of long bones close allowing no further growth. Segmental pattern Much of the human skeleton maintains the ancient segmental pattern present in all vertebrates mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles and amphibians with basic units being repeated. This segmental pattern is particularly evident in the vertebral column and in the ribcage. Organization The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. Bones See also: List of bones of the human skeleton There are 206 bones in the matured adult human body, but this number can vary slightly from individual to individual.1 Newborn babies have 270 bones; as they grow older some of their bones fuse together, making 206 bones in an adult skeleton. Function The skeleton has six main functions: Support The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body, and maintains its shape. The joints between bones permit movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement Movement in vertebrates is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton by tendons. Without the skeleton to give leverage, movement would be greatly restricted. However, biologically speaking, the skeleton does not enable movement. Protection The skeleton protects many vital organs: The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears. The spine protects the spinal cord. The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels. The clavicle and scapula protect the shoulder. The ilium and spine protect the digestive and urogenital systems and the hip. The patella and the ulna protect the knee and the elbow respectively. The carpals and tarsals protect the wrist and ankle respectively. Blood cell production The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, which takes place in red bone marrow. Storage Bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. Endocrine regulation Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which controls the regulation of blood sugar glucose and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.2 Sex-based differences An articulated human skeleton, as used in biology education An articulated human skeleton, as used in biology education There are many differences between the male and female human skeletons. Most prominent is the difference in the pelvis, owing to characteristics required for the processes of childbirth. The shape of a female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger to allow the head of a fetus to pass. Men tend to have slightly thicker and longer limbs and digit bones phalanges, while women tend to have narrower rib cages, smaller teeth, less angular mandibles, less pronounced cranial features such as the brow ridges and external occipital protuberance the small bump at the back of the skull, and the carrying angle of the forearm is more pronounced in females. Females also tend to have more rounded shoulder blades. Disorders See also: List of skeletal disorders There are many disorders of the skeleton. One of the more prominent is osteoporosis. Osteoporosis Main article: Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a disease of bone - leading to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density BMD is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization WHO in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass 20-year-old sex-matched healthy person average as measured by DXA; the term established osteoporosis includes the presence of a fragility fracture.3 Osteoporosis is most common in women after the menopause, when it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is called steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis SIOP or GIOP. Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle advice and medication, and preventing falls in people with known or suspected osteoporosis is an established way to prevent fractures.Osteoporosis can also be prevented with having a good source of calcium and Vitmin D. Osteoporosis can be treated with bisphosphonates and various other medical treatments. Gallery Drawing of the reverse of a female skeleton giving an impression of the location relative to surface markings A medical drawing by a German physician from 1910 Annotated skeleton References ^ The Bones - The Human Body - BBC World Service ^ Lee, Na Kyung; et al. August 2007. Endocrine Regulation of Energy Metabolism by the Skeleton. Cell 130: 456-469. doi:10.1016 inactive 2008-06-26. Retrieved on 2008-03-15. ^ WHO 1994. Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group. World Health Organization technical report series 843: 1-129. PMID 7941614. See also v d e Bones Axial skeleton, Appendicular skeleton VERTEBRAL COLUMN vertebrae cervical - thoracic - lumbar - sacrum - coccyx THORAX sternum - rib cranial bones of SKULL occipital - parietal - frontal - temporal - sphenoid - ethmoid facial bones of SKULL nasal - maxilla - lacrimal - zygomatic - palatine - inferior nasal conchae - vomer - mandible - THROAT: hyoid greater cornu, lesser cornu, body UPPER EXTREMITY SHOULDER GIRDLE:clavicle - scapula - ARM: humerus - ulna - radius- HAND:carpals scaphoid - lunate bone - triquetral - pisiform - trapezium - trapezoid - capitate - hamate - metacarpals - phalanges prox - int - dist LOWER EXTREMITY PELVIS:pelvis ilium, ischium, pubis - LEG: femur - patella - fibula - tibia - FOOT: tarsals calcaneus - talus - navicular - cuneiform - cuboid - metatarsals - phalanges prox - int - dist MIDDLE EAR OSSICLES malleus - incus - stapes v d e Bones of head and neck: the facial bones of the skull Maxilla Surfaces Anterior: fossae Incisive fossa, Canine fossa - Infraorbital foramen - Anterior nasal spine Infratemporal: Alveolar canals - Maxillary tuberosity Orbital: Infraorbital groove - Infraorbital canal Nasal: Pterygopalatine canal Processes Zygomatic process Frontal process Agger nasi, Anterior lacrimal crest Alveolar process Palatine process Incisive foramen, Incisive canals, Foramina of Scarpa, Incisive bone, Anterior nasal spine Other Body of maxilla - Maxillary sinus Zygomatic Orbital process Zygomatico-orbital - Temporal process Zygomaticotemporal - Lateral process Zygomaticofacial Palatine Fossae Pterygopalatine fossa - Pterygoid fossa Plates Horizontal plate Posterior nasal spine - Perpendicular plate Pterygopalatine canal, Sphenopalatine foramen, Pyramidal process Processes Orbital - Sphenoidal Mandible Body external surface Symphysis menti, Mental protuberance, Mental foramen - internal surface Mental spine, Mylohyoid line, Sublingual fovea, Submandibular fovea - Alveolar part of mandible Ramus Mylohyoid groove Mandibular canal, Lingula - Mandibular foramen - Angle Coronoid process - Mandibular notch - Condyloid process Minor/ nose Nasal bone: Internasal suture - Nasal foramina Inferior nasal concha: Ethmoidal process - Maxillary process Vomer: Wing Lacrimal: Posterior lacrimal crest - Lacrimal groove - Lacrimal hamulus v d e Bones of head and neck: the cranium of the skull Occipital Squama external Inion/External occipital protuberance, Nuchal lines - planes Occipital, Nuchal - internal Cruciform eminence, Internal occipital protuberance, Sagittal sulcus, Internal occipital crest Lateral parts Condyle Condyloid fossa, Condylar canal - Hypoglossal canal - jugular Jugular process, Jugular tubercle Basilar part Pharyngeal tubercle Other Foramen magnum Parietal Parietal eminence - Temporal line - Parietal foramen Frontal Squama Frontal suture - Frontal eminence - external Superciliary arches, Glabella - foramina Supraorbital, Cecum - Zygomatic process - internal Sagittal sulcus, Frontal crest Orbital part Ethmoidal notch - Lacrimal fossa - Trochlear fovea - Frontal sinus - Frontonasal duct Temporal Squama Articular tubercle - Suprameatal triangle - Mandibular fossa - Petrotympanic fissure - Zygomatic process Mastoid part Mastoid foramen - Mastoid process Mastoid cells - Mastoid notch - Occipital groove - Sigmoid sulcus - Mastoid antrum Entrance Petrous part Carotid canal - Facial canal Hiatus - Internal auditory meatus - Aqueduct of cochlea - Stylomastoid foramen fossae Subarcuate fossa, Jugular fossa - canaliculi Inferior tympanic, Mastoid - Styloid process - Petrosquamous suture note: ossicles in petrous part, but not part of temporal bone Tympanic part Suprameatal spine Sphenoid Surfaces Superior surface: Sella turcica Dorsum sellae, Tuberculum sellae, Hypophysial fossa, Posterior clinoid processes - Ethmoidal spine - Chiasmatic groove - Middle clinoid process - Petrosal process - Clivus Lateral surface: Carotid groove - Sphenoidal lingula Anterior surface: Sphenoidal sinuses Great wings foramina Rotundum, Ovale, Vesalii, Spinosum - Spine - Infratemporal crest - Sulcus for auditory tube Small wings Superior orbital fissure - Anterior clinoid process - Optic canal Pterygoid processes fossae Pterygoid, Scaphoid - pterygoid plates Lateral, Medial - Pterygoid canal - Hamulus Other Body - Sphenoidal conchae Ethmoid Plates Cribriform plate Crista galli, Olfactory foramina - Perpendicular plate Surfaces Lateral surface Orbital lamina - Uncinate process Medial surface Superior nasal concha - Superior meatus - Middle nasal concha - Middle meatus Labyrinth Ethmoid sinus - ethmoidal foramina Posterior, Anterior v d e Bones of head and neck: cranial sutures, fontanelles, and related regions Cranial sutures Cranial: frontoethmoidal - frontal or metopic frontal/frontal - coronal frontal/parietal - occipitomastoid occipital/temporal - lambdoid parietal/temporal - sagittal parietal/parietal - sphenoethmoidal - sphenofrontal - sphenoparietal - sphenosquamosal sphenoid/temporal - sphenopetrosal sphenoid/temporal - squamosal temporal/parietal - petrosquamous temporal/temporal Facial: palatomaxillary suture Cranial-facial: sphenozygomatic - zygomaticotemporal - zygomaticofrontal Fontanelles anterior - posterior - sphenoidal - mastoid Foramina of multiple bones inferior orbital fissure - foramen lacerum - jugular foramen - nasolacrimal canal Fossae anterior cranial fossa - middle cranial fossa - posterior cranial fossa - cranial cavity Other compound structures Cranial: asterion - pterion - calvaria - stephanion - bregma - lambda Facial: nasion Cranial-facial: dacryon - zygomatic arch - temporal fossa - infratemporal fossa - pterygomaxillary fissure - pterygopalatine fossa v d e Bones of upper limbs Pectoral girdle, clavicle conoid tubercle - trapezoid line - costal tuberosity - subclavian groove Scapula fossae subscapular, supraspinatous, infraspinatous - suprascapular notch - glenoid cavity tubercles infraglenoid, supraglenoid - spine of scapula - acromion - coracoid process borders superior, lateral/axillary, medial/vertebral - angles superior, inferior, lateral Humerus upper extremity: necks anatomical, surgical - tubercles greater, lesser - intertubercular sulcus body: radial sulcus - deltoid tuberosity lower extremity: capitulum - trochlea - epicondyles lateral, medial - supracondylar ridges lateral, medial - fossae radial, coronoid, olecranon Forearm radius: upper extremity head, tuberosity - body - lower extremity ulnar notch, styloid process ulna: upper extremity tuberosity, olecranon, coronoid process, radial notch, trochlear notch - body - lower extremity head, styloid process Hand carpus: scaphoid - lunate - triquetral - pisiform - trapezium - trapezoid - capitate - hamate hamulus metacarpus: 1st metacarpal - 2nd - 3rd - 4th - 5th phalanges of the hand: proximal - intermediate - distal v d e Bones of torso Sternum Suprasternal notch, Manubrium, Sternal angle, Body of sternum, Xiphisternal joint, Xiphoid process Rib specific ribs 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 12, false - 8-12, floating - 11-12 - parts Angle, Tubercle, Costal groove, Neck, Head Vertebra General structures body of vertebra, vertebral arch pedicle, lamina, vertebral notch, foramina vertebral, intervertebral, processes transverse, articular/zygapophysis, spinous, spinal canal Cervical vertebrae C1 anterior arch, posterior arch, lateral mass, C2 dens, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7 anterior tubercle, posterior tubercle, foramen transversarium Thoracic vertebrae T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, T10, T11, T12 costal facets superior, inferior, transverse Lumbar vertebrae accessory process, mammillary process, L5 Sacrum pelvic surface anterior sacral foramina, dorsal surface posterior sacral foramina, median sacral crest, medial sacral crest, lateral sacral crest, lateral surface sacral tuberosity, base, sacral hiatus - presacral space - sacral promontory - sacral canal - ala of sacrum - sacrovertebral angle Coccyx v d e Bones of lower limbs Femur upper extremity head fovea - neck - greater trochanter trochanteric fossa - lesser trochanter - intertrochanteric line - intertrochanteric crest body linea aspera - gluteal tuberosity / third trochanter - pectineal line lower extremity adductor tubercle - epicondyles lateral, medial - condyles lateral, medial - patellar surface - intercondylar fossa Tibia upper extremity intercondylar eminence posterior intercondylar area, anterior intercondylar area, lateral intercondylar tubercle, medial intercondylar tubercle - condyles lateral, medial body tuberosity - soleal line lower extremity medial malleolus - fibular notch Fibula head - body - lateral malleolus Tarsus calcaneus sustentaculum tali, trochlear process - talus body, neck, head - navicular - cuboid - cuneiform medial, intermediate, lateral Metatarsus 1st metatarsal - 2nd - 3rd - 4th - 5th Other patella - phalanges of the foot v d e Bones of pelvis / pelvic cavity General sacrum, coccyx, hip bone Ilium body arcuate line wing: gluteal lines posterior, anterior, inferior - fossa - iliac spines anterior superior, anterior inferior, posterior superior, posterior inferior - crest - tuberosity Ischium body ischial spine, lesser sciatic notch - superior ramus tuberosity of the ischium - inferior ramus Pubis body - superior ramus pubic tubercle, pubic crest, obturator crest - inferior ramus pectineal line Compound acetabulum acetabular notch - iliopubic eminence / iliopectineal line - linea terminalis - ischiopubic ramus / pubic arch obturator foramen - greater sciatic foramen / greater sciatic notch - lesser sciatic foramen lesser pelvis pelvic inlet, pelvic brim, pelvic outlet - greater pelvis External links A skeleton page for kids Skeletal System Bones of Human Body Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Human_skeleton Categories: Skull | Pelvis | Human anatomy | Skeletal system | Endocrine systemHidden category: Pages with DOIs broken since 2008 Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية Bosanski ÄŒesky Español Ù?ارسی Français í•œêµì–´ Ã?slenska Italiano LatvieÅ¡u Bahasa Melayu Polski Português SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina Suomi Tagalog ไทย اردو ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 13 September 2008, at 18:0
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