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20-September-2008 09:55:59 - Author For other uses, see Author disambiguation. Authorship redirects here. For the use in academia, see Academic authorship. An author is defined both as the person who originates or gives existence to anything and as one who sets forth written statements in the Oxford English Dictionary.1 The first entry suggests that authorship determines responsibility for what is created. The second entry goes on to clarify that, when using the term author, the anything which is created is most usually associated with written work. Contents 1 Author of a written work 1.1 Legal significance 1.2 Literary significance 2 The Auteur Theory and the Mantle of Authorship 3 Relationship between author and publisher 4 Relationship between author and or 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Author of a written work Legal significance In copyright law, there is necessarily little flexibility as to what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States title 17, U.S. Code to authors of original works of authorship2. Holding the title of author over any literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, or certain other intellectual works gives this person, the owner of the copyright, exclusive right to do or authorize any production or distribution of their work. Any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, where it can be used without limit. However, copyright law has been amended time and time again since the inception of the law to extend the length of this fixed period where the work is exclusively controlled by the copyright holder. However, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time it's created. An interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that it can be passed down to another upon one's death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, but yet enjoys the same legal benefits. Questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the complex issue of fan fiction? If the media agency responsible for the authorised production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal contraints from actors, music, and other considerations, come into play? As well, how does copyright apply to fan-generated stories for books? What powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction? Literary significance In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting. In the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author. He attests, in his essay Death of the Author 1968, that it is language which speaks, not the author3. The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, and not someone possessing legal responsibility for the process of its production. Every line of written text is a mere reflection of references from any of a multitude of traditions, or, as Barthes puts it, the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of culture; it is never original3. With this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The explanation and meaning of a work does not have to be sought in the one who produced it, as if it were always in the end, through the more or less transparent allegory of the fiction, the voice of a single person, the author 'confiding' in us3. The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a written work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak, rather than author. Michel Foucault argues in his famous essay What is an author? 1969, that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that a private letter may have a signer--it does not have an author4. For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to attribute certain standards upon the text which, for Foucault, are working in conjunction with the idea of the author function4. Foucault's author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a written work, a part of its structure, but not necessarily part of the interpretive process. The author's name indicates the status of the discourse within a society and culture, and at one time was used as an anchor for interpreting a text, a practice which Barthes would argue is not a particularly relevant or valid endeavor.4 Expanding upon Foucault's position, Alexander Nehamas writes that Foucault suggests an author ... is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret it, not necessarily who penned the text.5 It is this distinction between producing a written work and producing the interpretation or meaning in a written work that both Barthes and Foucault are interested in. Foucault warns of the risks of keeping the author's name in mind during interpretation, because it could affect the value and meaning with which one handles an interpretation. Literary critics Barthes and Foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the notion of one overarching voice when interpreting a written work, because of the complications inherent with a writer's title of author. They warn of the dangers interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words and language with the personality of one authorial voice. Instead, readers should allow a text to be interpreted in terms of the language as author. The Auteur Theory and the Mantle of Authorship In the essay Notes on the Auteur Theory in 1962, Andrew Sarris discusses the role of movie directors as central and critical to the voice of films in world cinema. Over all other roles in film production, Sarris believes the director is the only one who can claim the title of auteur. So, this term auteur or author can also refer to a special mantle of creative privilege based on an audience's perception of the work and where they feel creativity originates. Since Sarris, several writers have changed/altered the definition of auteur in regards to authorship. When looking specifically at film, the idea of auteur relates to a filmmaker's full body of work. There have been assertions that auteurs are working through psychological issues throughout their films. Current auteurs use their authorship to market their films. Relationship between author and publisher A percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price and or a fixed amount on each book that is sold. Publishers, at times, reduced the risk of this type of arrangement, by agreeing only to pay this after a certain amount of copies had sold. In Canada this practice occurred during the 1890s, but was not commonplace until the 1920s. Commissioned: Publishers made publication arrangements, and authors covered all expenses today the practice of authors paying for their publications is often called vanity publishing, and is looked down upon by many publishers, even though it may have been a common and accepted practice in the past. Publishers would receive a percentage on the sale of every copy of a book, and the author would receive the rest of the money made. Relationship between author and or The relationship between the author and the or, often the author's only liaison to the publishing company, is often characterized as the site of tension. For the author to reach his or her audience, the work usually must attract the attention of the or. The idea of the author as the sole meaning-maker of necessity changes to include the influences of the or and the publisher in order to engage the audience in writing as a social act. Pierre Bourdieu's essay The Field of Cultural Production depicts the publishing industry as a space of literary or artistic position-takings, also called the field of struggles, which is defined by the tension and movement inherent among the various positions in the field6. Bourdieu claims that the field of position-takings ... is not the product of coherence-seeking intention or objective consensus, meaning that an industry characterized by position-takings is not one of harmony and neutrality7. In particular for the writer, their authorship in their work makes their work part of their identity, and there is much at stake personally over the negotiation of authority over that identity. However, it is the or who has the power to impose the dominant definition of the writer and there fore to delimit the population of those entitled to take part in the struggle to define the writer8. As cultural investors, publishers rely on the or position to identify a good investment in cultural capital which may grow to yield economic capital across all positions9. According to the studies of James Curran, the system of shared values among ors in Britain has generated a pressure among authors to write to fit the ors' expectations, removing the focus from the reader-audience and putting a strain on the relationship between authors and ors and on writing as a social act. Even the book review by the ors has more significance than the readership's reception10. Good relationships between authors and ors are largely found to be the product of an awareness of writing as a social act, and an effort to create a balance wherein the authority over the text is negotiated among all of the positions in the industry, so that the meaning is effectively carried from the meaning-maker to the readership. See also Novelist Writer Lists of authors Lists of poets List of novelists Professional writing Academic authorship References ^ Author. The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. ^ Copyright Office Basics. U.S. Copyright Office July 2006. Retrieved on 2008-03-30. ^ a b c Barthes, Roland 1968, The Death of the Author, Image, Music, Text published 1977 ^ a b c Foucault, Michel 1969, What is an Author?, in Harari, Josué V., Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979 ^ Nehemas, Alexander Nov. 1986, What An Author Is, The Journal of Philosophy Eighty-Third Annual Meeting American Philosophical Association, Eastern Division 8311: 685-691 ^ Bourdieu, Pierre. The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed. The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 30. ^ Bourdieu, Pierre. The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed. The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 34 ^ Bourdieu, Pierre. The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed. The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 42 ^ Bourdieu, Pierre. The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed. The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 68 ^ Curran, James. Literary ors, Social Networks and Cultural Tradition. Media Organizations in Society. James Curran, ed. London: Arnold, 2000, 230 Further reading Hix, H. L. Morte d'Author: An Autopsy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990. External links Look up authorship in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Author Categories: Writing occupations | Literary criticism Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages Alemannisch العربية Boarisch ÄŒesky Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Ù?ارسی Français Furlan Galego í•œêµì–´ Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Kurdî / كوردی Magyar МакедонÑ?ки Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ ‪Norsk nynorsk‬ O'zbek Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi РуÑ?Ñ?кий Shqip Simple English SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька Walon Yorùbá ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 21 July 2008, at 13:56
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