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20-September-2008 09:55:59 - Electric charge Electromagnetism Electricity · Magnetism Electrostatics · Electric charge · Coulomb's law · Electric field · Electric flux · Gauss' law · Electric potential · Electrostatic induction · Electric dipole moment · Magnetostatics · Ampère's law · Electric current · Magnetic field · Magnetic flux · Biot-Savart law · Magnetic dipole moment · Gauss's law for magnetism · Electrodynamics · Free space · Lorentz force law · EMF · Electromagnetic induction · Faraday's law · Displacement current · Maxwell's equations · EM field · Electromagnetic radiation · Liénard-Wiechert Potentials · Maxwell tensor · Eddy current · Electrical Network · Electrical conduction · Electrical resistance · Capacitance · Inductance · Impedance · Resonant cavities · Waveguides · Covariant formulation · Electromagnetic tensor · EM Stress-energy tensor · Four-current · Four-potential · Scientists · Ampere · Coulomb · Faraday · Heaviside · Henry · Hertz · Lorentz · Maxwell · Tesla · Weber · This box: view talk Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces. Contents 1 Overview 2 Units 3 History 4 Properties 5 Conservation of charge 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Overview Electric charge is a characteristic of some subatomic particles. It is quantized in that, when expressed in units of the so-called elementary charge e, it takes integer or fractional values. Electrons by convention have a charge of -1, while protons have the opposite charge of +1. Quarks have a fractional charge of -1â?„3 or +2â?„3. The antiparticle equivalents of these positrons, antiprotons, and antiquarks, respectively have the opposite charge. There are other charged particles. The discrete nature of electric charge was proposed by Michael Faraday in his electrolysis experiments, and then directly demonstrated by Robert Millikan in his oil-drop experiment. In general, same-sign charged particles repel one another, while different-sign charged particles attract. This is expressed quantitatively in Coulomb's law, which states that the magnitude of the electrostatic repelling force between two particles is proportional to the product of their charges and the inverse square of the distance between them. The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the electric charges of its constituent particles. Often, the net electric charge is zero, because it is favorable for the number of electrons in every atom to equal the number of protons or, more generally, for the number of anions, or negatively charged atoms, in every molecule to equal the number of cations, or positively charged atoms. When the net electric charge is non-zero and motionless, one has the phenomenon known as static electricity. Even when the net charge is zero, it can be distributed non-uniformly e.g., due to an external electric field, or due to molecular motion, in which case the material is said to be polarized. The charge due to the polarization is known as bound charge, while the excess charge brought from outside is called free charge. The motion of charged particles e.g., of electrons in metals in a particular direction is known as electric current. The discrete nature of electric charge was proposed by Michael Faraday in his electrolysis experiments, then directly demonstrated by Robert Millikan in his oil-drop experiment. Units The SI unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb, which is equivalent to about 6.25 × 1018 e the charge on a single electron or proton. Hence, the charge of an electron is approximately -1.602 x 10-19 C. The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the cross-section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere within one second. The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge. The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an electrometer, or indirectly measured with a ballistic galvanometer. Formally, a measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary charge e charge is quantized, but since it is an average, macroscopic quantity, many orders of magnitude larger than a single elementary charge, it can effectively take on any real value. Furthermore, in some contexts it is meaningful to speak of fractions of a charge; e.g. in the charging of a capacitor. History Coulomb's torsion balance Coulomb's torsion balance As reported by the Ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus around 600 BC, charge or electricity could be accumulated by rubbing fur on various substances, such as amber. The Greeks noted that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair. They also noted that if they rubbed the amber for long enough, they could even get a spark to jump. This property derives from the triboelectric effect. In 1600 the English scientist William Gilbert returned to the subject in De Magnete, and coined the New Latin word electricus from ηλεκτÏ?ον elektron, the Greek word for amber, which soon gave rise to the English words electric and electricity. He was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented what was probably the first electrostatic generator. Other European pioneers were Robert Boyle, who in 1675 stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum; Stephen Gray, who in 1729 classified materials as conductors and insulators; and C. F. du Fay, who proposed in 1733 1 that electricity came in two varieties which cancelled each other, and expressed this in terms of a two-fluid theory. When glass was rubbed with silk, du Fay said that the glass was charged with vitreous electricity, and when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was said to be charged with resinous electricity. In 1839 Michael Faraday showed that the apparent division between static electricity, current electricity and bioelectricity was incorrect, and all were a consequence of the behavior of a single kind of electricity appearing in opposite polarities. It is arbitrary which polarity you call positive and which you call negative. Positive charge can be defined as the charge left on a glass rod after being rubbed with silk.1 One of the foremost experts on electricity in the 18th century was Benjamin Franklin, who argued in favour of a one-fluid theory of electricity. Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter; for example he believed that it was the glass in a Leyden jar that held the accumulated charge. He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current. He also posited that when matter contained too little of the fluid it was negatively charged, and when it had an excess it was positively charged. Arbitrarily or for a reason that was not recorded he identified the term positive with vitreous electricity and negative with resinous electricity. William Watson arrived at the same explanation at about the same time. We now know that the Franklin/Watson model was fundamentally correct. There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge.2 On the other hand, just knowing the charge is not a complete description of the situation. Matter is composed of several kinds of electrically charged particles, and these particles have many properties, not just charge. The most common charge carriers are the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the conventional current without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current and/or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction. This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations. At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees there are many ways of carrying an electric current, including: a flow of electrons; a flow of electron holes which act like positive particles; and both negative and positive particles ions or other charged particles flowing in opposite directions in an electrolytic solution or a plasma. Beware that in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the drift velocity of the actual charge carriers, i.e. the electrons. This is a source of confusion for beginners. Properties Flavour in particle physics v d e Flavour quantum numbers: Lepton number: L Baryon number: B Strangeness: S Charm: C Bottomness: B' Topness: T Isospin: Iz or I Weak isospin: Tz Electric charge: Q Combinations: Hypercharge: Y Y=2Q-Iz Weak hypercharge: YW YW=2Q-Tz YW=B-L Related topics: CPT symmetry CKM matrix CP symmetry Chirality Aside from the properties described in articles about electromagnetism, charge is a relativistic invariant. This means that any particle that has charge Q, no matter how fast it goes, always has charge Q. This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of one helium nucleus two protons and two neutrons bound together in a nucleus and moving around at high speeds is the same as two deuterium nuclei one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus. Conservation of charge The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave function. The conservation of charge results in the charge-current continuity equation. More generally, the net change in charge density Ï? within a volume of integration V is equal to the area integral over the current density J on the surface of the area S, which is in turn equal to the net current I: - \fracddt \int_V \rho\, \mathrmdV = \int_S \mathbfJ \cdot \mathrmd\mathbfS = \int J S \cos\theta = I. Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result: I = -\fracdQdt. The charge transferred between time to and t is obtained by integrating both sides: Q = \int_t_o^t_f I\, \mathrmdt where I is the net outward current through a closed surface and Q is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface. See also Elementary charge Charge physics Static electricity Electricity Current density Electrostatic discharge SI electromagnetism units Quantity of electricity References ^ Electromagnetic Fields 2nd ion, Roald K. Wangsness, Wiley, 1986. ISBN 0-471-81186-6 intermediate level textbook ^ One Kind of Charge External links How fast does a charge decay? Science Aid: Electrostatic charge Easy-to-understand page on electrostatic charge. Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Electric_charge Categories: Electrostatics | Electricity | Physical quantities | Chemical properties | Introductory physics | Fundamental physics concepts | Conservation laws | Electromagnetism | Spintronics Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages Afrikaans العربية Bosanski БългарÑ?ки Català Česky Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Ù?ارسی Français Galego í•œêµì–´ Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ã?slenska Italiano עברית Latina LatvieÅ¡u Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Монгол Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ ‪Norsk nynorsk‬ Polski Português Română Runa Simi РуÑ?Ñ?кий Simple English SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / СрпÑ?кохрватÑ?ки Suomi Svenska தமிழà¯? ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька اردو Yorùbá 粵語 ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 9 August 2008, at 00:53
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