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20-September-2008 09:55:48 - Endocrine system Major endocrine glands. Male left, female on the right. 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testes Major endocrine glands. Male left, female on the right. 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testes The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development and puberty, tissue function, and also plays a part in determining mood.1 The field of medicine that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of the wider field of internal medicine. Contents 1 Function 1.1 Types of signaling 1.1.1 Endocrine 1.1.2 Autocrine 1.1.3 Paracrine 1.1.4 Juxtacrine 2 Role in disease 3 Table of endocrine glands and secreted hormones 3.1 Hypothalamus 3.2 Pineal body epiphysis 3.3 Pituitary gland hypophysis 3.3.1 Anterior pituitary lobe adenohypophysis 3.3.2 Posterior pituitary lobe neurohypophysis 3.3.3 Intermediate pituitary lobe pars intermedia 3.4 Thyroid 3.5 Parathyroid 3.6 Heart 3.7 Striated muscle 3.8 Skin 3.9 Adipose tissue 3.10 Stomach 3.11 Duodenum 3.12 Liver 3.13 Pancreas 3.14 Kidney 3.15 Adrenal glands 3.15.1 Adrenal cortex 3.15.2 Adrenal medulla 3.15.3 Testes 3.16 Ovary 3.17 Placenta when pregnant 3.18 Uterus when pregnant 4 See also 5 References Function The Endocrine system is an information signal system much like the nervous system. However, the nervous system uses nerves to conduct information, whereas the endocrine system mainly uses blood vessels as information channels. Glands located in many regions of the body release into the bloodstream specific chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones regulate the many and varied functions of an organism, e.g., mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well as sending messages and acting on them. Types of signaling The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling.2 Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system. Endocrine Main article: endocrine signaling A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually referred to as an axis, for example the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Typical endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast exocrine glands such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen. Autocrine Main article: Autocrine signalling Other signaling can target the same cell. Paracrine Main article: Paracrine signalling Paracrine signaling is where the target cell is nearby. Juxtacrine Main article: Juxtacrine signalling Juxtacrine signals are transmitted along cell membranes via protein or lipid components integral to the membrane and are capable of affecting either the emitting cell or cells immediately adjacent. Role in disease Main article: Endocrine diseases Diseases of the endocrine system are common,3 including diseases such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterised by dysregulated hormone release a productive Pituitary adenoma, inappropriate response to signalling Hypothyroidism, lack or destruction of a gland Diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in Chronic renal failure, or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the neck Toxic multinodular goitre. Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic, or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation. Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones. Cancer can occur in endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signalling distant tissues to proliferate, for example the Estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, Paracrine, and autocrine signalling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.4 Table of endocrine glands and secreted hormones This is a table of the glands of the endocrine system, and their secreted hormones Hypothalamus Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Release thyroid-stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary primarily Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone GnRH Neuroendocine cells of the Preoptic area Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary. Growth hormone-releasing hormone GHRH Neuroendocrine neurons of the Arcuate nucleus Release GH from anterior pituitary Corticotropin-releasing hormone CRH Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Release ACTH from anterior pituitary Oxytocin Magnocellular neurosecretory cells Contraction of cervix and vagina Involved in orgasm, trust between people.5 and circadian homeostasis body temperature, activity level, wakefulness.6 release breast milk Vasopressin Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Increases permeability of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to water in the nephrons of the kidney, thus increasing water reabsorbiton. Somatostatin, also growth hormone-inhibiting hormone SS or GHIH Neuroendocrince cells of the Periventricular nucleus Inhibit release of GH and TSH from anterior pituitary Prolactin inhibiting hormone or Dopamine PIH or DA Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus Inhibit release of prolactin and TSH from anterior pituitary Prolactin-releasing hormone PRH Release prolactin from anterior pituitary Pineal body epiphysis Secreted hormone From cells Effect Melatonin Primarily Pinealocytes antioxidant and causes drowsiness Pituitary gland hypophysis Anterior pituitary lobe adenohypophysis Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Growth hormone GH Somatotropes stimulates growth and cell reproduction Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver Prolactin PRL Lactotropes milk production in mammary glands sexual gratification after sexual acts Adrenocorticotropic hormone or corticotropin ACTH Corticotropes synthesis of corticosteroids glucocorticoids and androgens in adrenocortical cells Lipotropin Corticotropes lipolysis and steroidogenesis, stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin Thyroid-stimulating hormone or thyrotropin TSH Thyrotropes stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine T4 and triiodothyronine T3 Follicle-stimulating hormone FSH Gonadotropes In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary. In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes Luteinizing hormone LH Gonadotropes In female: ovulation In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone Posterior pituitary lobe neurohypophysis Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Oxytocin Magnocellular neurosecretory cells Contraction of cervix and vagina Involved in orgasm, trust between people.7 and circadian homeostasis body temperature, activity level, wakefulness.8 release breast milk Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone AVP or ADH Magnocellular neurosecretory cells retention of water in kidneys moderate vasoconstriction Oxytocin and Anti-Diuretic Hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored. Intermediate pituitary lobe pars intermedia Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Melanocyte-stimulating hormone MSH Melanotroph melanogenesis by melanocytes in skin and hair. Thyroid Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Triiodothyronine T3 Thyroid epithelial cell potent form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine T4 Thyroid epithelial cells less active form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis, often functions as a prohormone Calcitonin Parafollicular cells Construct bone reduce blood Ca2+ Parathyroid Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Parathyroid hormone PTH Parathyroid chief cell increase blood Ca2+: indirectly stimulate osteoclasts Ca2+ reabsorption in kidney activate vitamin D Slightly decrease blood phosphate: decreased reuptake in kidney but increased uptake from bones activate vitamin D Heart Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Atrial-natriuretic peptide ANP Cardiac myocytes Reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats Brain natriuretic peptide BNP Cardiac myocytes To a lesser degree than ANP reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats Striated muscle Secreted hormone From cells Effect Thrombopoietin Myocytes stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets9 Skin Secreted hormone From cells Effect Calcidiol 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 Inactive form of Vitamin D3 Adipose tissue Secreted hormone From cells Effect Leptin Primarily Adipocytes decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism. Estrogens10 mainly Estrone Adipocytes Stomach Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Gastrin Primarily G cells Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells Ghrelin P/D1 cells Stimulate appetite, secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland Neuropeptide Y NPY increased food intake and decreased physical activity Secretin S cells Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops production of gastric juice Somatostatin D cells Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin CCK, secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide VIP, gastric inhibitory polypeptide GIP, enteroglucagon Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine11 Histamine ECL cells stimulate gastric acid secretion Endothelin X cells Smooth muscle contraction of stomach12 Duodenum Secreted hormone From cells Effect Cholecystokinin I cells Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant Liver Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Insulin-like growth factor or somatomedin Primarily IGF Hepatocytes insulin-like effects regulate cell growth and development Angiotensinogen and angiotensin Hepatocytes vasoconstriction release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen. Thrombopoietin Hepatocytes stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets9 Pancreas Secreted hormone From cells Effect Insulin Primarily ß Islet cells Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other anabolic effects Glucagon Also Primarily a Islet cells glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver increases blood glucose level Somatostatin d Islet cells Inhibit release of insulin13 Inhibit release of glucagon13 Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas. Pancreatic polypeptide PP cells Unknown Kidney Secreted hormone From cells Effect Renin Primarily Juxtaglomerular cells Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen Erythropoietin EPO Extraglomerular mesangial cells Stimulate erythrocyte production Calcitriol 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 Active form of vitamin D3 Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH Thrombopoietin stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets9 Adrenal glands Adrenal cortex Secreted hormone From cells Effect Glucocorticoids chiefly cortisol zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells Stimulation of gluconeogenesis Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in adipose tissue anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive Mineralocorticoids chiefly aldosterone Zona glomerulosa cells Increase blood volume by reabsorption of sodium in kidneys primarily Potassium and H+ secretion in kidney. Androgens including DHEA and testosterone Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells Virilization, anabolic Adrenal medulla Secreted hormone From cells Effect Adrenaline epinephrine Primarily Chromaffin cells Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells Dilate the pupils Suppress non-emergency bodily processes e.g., digestion Suppress immune system Noradrenaline norepinephrine Chromaffin cells Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells Increase skeletal muscle readiness. Dopamine Chromaffin cells Increase heart rate and blood pressure Enkephalin Chromaffin cells Regulate pain Testes Secreted hormone From cells Effect Androgens chiefly testosterone Leydig cells Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength, Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair. Estradiol Sertoli cells Prevent apoptosis of germ cells14 Inhibin Sertoli cells | Inhibit production of FSH Ovary These originate either from the ovarian follicle or the corpus luteum. Secreted hormone From cells Effect Progesterone Granulosa cells, theca cells Support pregnancy15: Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus permeable to sperm. Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the human embryo Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility15 Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Other: Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation16 Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle widen bronchi and regulate mucus Anti-inflammatory Reduce gall-bladder activity17 Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and skin Promote healing by regulating collagen Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen Androstenedione Theca cells Substrate for estrogen Estrogens mainly estradiol Granulosa cells Structural: Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics Accelerate height growth Accelerate metabolism burn fat Reduce muscle mass Stimulate endometrial growth Increase uterine growth Maintain blood vessels and skin Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation Protein synthesis: Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation: Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III, plasminogen Increase platelet adhesiveness Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance: Regulate salt sodium and water retention Increase growth hormone Increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract: Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin: Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer: Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers 18 Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers. Lung function: Promote lung function by supporting alveoli.19 Inhibin Granulosa cells Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary Placenta when pregnant Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Progesterone Primarily Support pregnancy15: Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus. Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility15 Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone Estrogens mainly Estriol Also Primarily Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen Human chorionic gonadotropin HCG Syncytiotrophoblast promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo. Human placental lactogen HPL Syncytiotrophoblast increase production of insulin and IGF-1 increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance Inhibin Fetal Trophoblasts suppress FSH Uterus when pregnant Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Prolactin PRL Decidual cells milk production in mammary glands Relaxin Decidual cells Unclear in humans See also Releasing hormones Neuroendocrinology Nervous system Endocrine disruptor Major systems of the human body References ^ Collier, Judith. et.al 2006. Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties 7th edn.. Oxford, 350 -351. ISBN 0-19-853085-4. ^ University of Virginia - HISTOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS ^ Kasper et al. 2005. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill, 2074. ISBN 0-07-139140-1. ^ Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Neilson EG, Moses HL 2004. TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia.. Science February 6 3035659: 848-51. doi:10.1126/science.1090922. ^ Kosfeld M et al. 2005 Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435:673-676. PDF PMID 15931222 ^ Scientific American Mind, Rhythm and Blues; June/July 2007; Scientific American Mind; by Ulrich Kraft ^ Kosfeld M et al. 2005 Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435:673-676. PDF PMID 15931222 ^ Scientific American Mind, Rhythm and Blues; June/July 2007; Scientific American Mind; by Ulrich Kraft ^ a b c Kaushansky K. Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2034-45. PMID 16687716. ^ The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors. Frühbeck G. Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2004 Jul;23:197-208. ^ http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/otherendo/somatostatin.html Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin ^ Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats Journal of Smooth Muscle Research Vol. 41 2005 , No. 1 35-47. Kazuki Endo1, Takayuki Matsumoto1, Tsuneo Kobayashi1, Yutaka Kasuya1 and Katsuo Kamata1 ^ a b Physiology at MCG 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17 ^ Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L. Estradiol Acts as a Germ Cell Survival Factor in the Human Testis in vitro. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology Metabolism 2006;85:2057-67 PMID 10843196 ^ a b c d Placental Hormones ^ Physiology at MCG 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13 ^ Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W 1988. Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility. J Surg Res 45 6: 505-12. doi:10.1016/0022-48048890137-0. PMID 3184927. ^ Hormonal Therapy ^ Massaro D, Massaro GD 2004. Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice. American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 287 6: L1154-9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID 15298854 doi= 10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. v d e Human organ systems Cardiovascular system Digestive system Endocrine system Immune system Integumentary system Lymphatic system Muscular system Nervous system Reproductive system Respiratory system Skeletal system Urinary system v d e Human anatomy, endocrine system: endocrine glands Hypothalamic/ pituitary axes Thyroid axis Thyroid gland Parafollicular cell, Thyroid epithelial cell, Thyroid isthmus, Lobes of thyroid gland, Pyramid of thyroid Parathyroid gland Oxyphil cell, Chief cell Adrenal axis Adrenal gland Gonadal axis Testes - Ovaries - Corpus luteum Pineal gland Pinealocyte Islets of pancreas Alpha cell - Beta cell - Delta cell - PP cell - Epsilon cell v d e Endocrine system: hormones/endocrine glands Peptide hormones, Steroid hormones Hypothalamic-pituitary Hypothalamus: TRH, CRH , GnRH, GHRH, somatostatin, dopamine - Posterior pituitary: vasopressin, oxytocin - Anterior pituitary: α FSH, LH, TSH, GH, prolactin, POMC ACTH, MSH, endorphins, lipotropin Adrenal axis Adrenal medulla: epinephrine, norepinephrine - Adrenal cortex: aldosterone, cortisol, DHEA Thyroid axis Thyroid: thyroid hormone T3 and T4 - calcitonin - Parathyroid: PTH Gonadal axis Testis: testosterone, AMH, inhibin - Ovary: estradiol, progesterone, inhibin/activin, relaxin pregnancy Other end. glands Pancreas: glucagon, insulin, somatostatin - Pineal gland: melatonin Non-end. glands Placenta: hCG, HPL, estrogen, progesterone - Kidney: renin, EPO, calcitriol, prostaglandin - Heart atrium: ANP - Stomach: gastrin, ghrelin - Duodenum: CCK, GIP, secretin, motilin, VIP - Ileum: enteroglucagon - Adipose tissue: leptin, adiponectin, resistin - Thymus: Thymosin - Thymopoietin - Thymulin - Skeleton: Osteocalcin - Liver/other: Insulin-like growth factor IGF-1, IGF-2 Target-derived NGF, BDNF, NT-3 v d e Endocrine pathology: endocrine diseases E00-35, 240-259 Pancreas/ glucose metabolism Diabetes mellitus types: type 1, type 2, MODY, complications: coma, angiopathy, ketoacidosis, nephropathy, neuropathy, retinopathy Hypoglycemia - Hyperinsulinism - Zollinger-Ellison syndrome - insulin receptor Rabson-Mendenhall syndrome - Insulin resistance H/P axes Pituitary Hyperpituitarism Acromegaly, Hyperprolactinaemia, SIADH Hypopituitarism Sheehan's syndrome, Kallmann syndrome, Growth hormone deficiency, Diabetes insipidus Adiposogenital dystrophy - Empty sella syndrome - Pituitary apoplexy - ACTH deficiency Thyroid Hypothyroidism Iodine deficiency, Cretinism, Congenital hypothyroidism, Goitre, Myxedema Hyperthyroidism Graves disease, Toxic multinodular goitre, Teratoma with thyroid tissue or Struma ovarii Thyroiditis De Quervain's thyroiditis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Riedel's thyroiditis Euthyroid sick syndrome - Thyroid hormone resistance - Thyroid nodule Parathyroid Hypoparathyroidism Pseudohypoparathyroidism - Hyperparathyroidism Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Adrenal Adrenocortical hyperfunction: Cushing's syndrome Nelson's syndrome, Pseudo-Cushing's syndrome - Hyperaldosteronism Conn syndrome, Bartter syndrome CAH Lipoid, 3β, 11β, 17α, 21α Adrenal insufficiency Addison's disease, Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome - Hypoaldosteronism Gonads ovarian Polycystic ovary syndrome, Premature ovarian failure testicular 5-alpha-reductase deficiency, 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency general Hypogonadism, Delayed puberty, Precocious puberty Other Androgen insensitivity syndrome - Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome - Carcinoid syndrome - Gigantism - Short stature Laron syndrome, Psychogenic dwarfism - Multiple endocrine neoplasia 1, 2 - Progeria - Woodhouse-Sakati syndrome - thymus Abscess of thymus, Thymus hyperplasia see also congenital, neoplasia v d e Cell signaling Key concepts Ligand - Signal transduction - Apoptosis - Second messenger system Ca2+ signaling, Lipid signaling Processes Paracrine - Autocrine - Juxtacrine - Neurotransmitters - Endocrine Neuroendocrine Types of proteins Receptor Transmembrane, Intracellular - Transcription factor General, Preinitiation complex, TFIID, TFIIH - Adaptor protein receptor ligands hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, growth factors v d e Endocrine system intervention ICD-9-CM V3 06-07 Operations, surgeries Thyroidectomy - Parathyroidectomy - Adrenalectomy - Hypophysectomy - Thymectomy Hormone therapy in oncology - sex reassignment female-to-male, male-to-female Other medication Replacement therapy Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Endocrine_system Categories: Endocrine system | Metabolic disorders Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية Bosanski БългарÑ?ки Català Česky Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Bahasa Indonesia Ã?slenska Italiano עברית LatvieÅ¡u Lietuvių Magyar МакедонÑ?ки Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ Polski Português РуÑ?Ñ?кий Simple English SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழà¯? ไทย Türkçe ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 21 August 2008, at 06:35
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