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20-September-2008 09:55:49 - Respiratory system A complete, schematic view of the human respiratory system. A complete, schematic view of the human respiratory system. In living organisms, a respiratory system functions to allow gas exchange. The gases that are exchanged, the anatomy or structure of the exchange system, and the precise physiological uses of the exchanged gases vary depending on the organism. In humans and other mammals, for example, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs. 1 Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes unique anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata. Contents 1 Anatomy of Respiratory System in Vertebrates 1.1 Humans and Mammals 1.1.1 Unique Aspects of Comparative Anatomy/Physiology in Mammals 1.1.1.1 Marine mammals 1.1.1.2 Horses 1.1.1.3 Elephants 1.1.1.4 Rodents 1.2 Birds 1.3 Reptiles 1.4 Amphibians 1.5 Fish 1.5.1 Lungfish 1.5.2 Labyrinth fishes 2 Anatomy of Respiratory System in Invertebrates 3 Physiology of Respiratory System in Animals 3.1 Ventilation 3.1.1 Control 3.1.2 Exhalation 3.2 Circulation 3.3 Gas exchange 3.4 Non-respiratory Functions 3.4.1 Vocalization 3.4.2 Temperature control 3.4.3 Coughing and sneezing 4 Development of Respiratory System in Animals 4.1 Humans and Mammals 5 Disease and the Respiratory System 6 Respiratory System in Plants 6.1 Gas exchange in plants 6.2 See also 6.3 References 6.4 Notes 6.5 External links Anatomy of Respiratory System in Vertebrates Humans and Mammals In humans and mammals, the respiratory system can be subdivided into an upper respiratory tract and a lower respiratory tract based on anatomical features. The upper respiratory tract includes the nasal passages, pharynx and the larynx. The lower respiratory tract is composed of the trachea, the primary bronchi and lungs. The respiratory system can also be divided into physiological, or functional, zones. These include the conducting zone the region for gas transport from the outside atmosphere to just above the alveoli, the transitional zone, and the respiratory zone the alveolar region where gas exchange occurs. See also respiratory tract. Unique Aspects of Comparative Anatomy/Physiology in Mammals Marine mammals Horses Elephants Rodents Birds See Avian respiratory system for a detailed description. Reptiles Amphibians Fish Lungfish Labyrinth fishes Anatomy of Respiratory System in Invertebrates Physiology of Respiratory System in Animals See also Respiratory Physiology. Ventilation Ventilation of the lungs is carried out by the muscles of respiration. Control Ventilation occurs under the control of the autonomic nervous system from parts of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata and the pons. This area of the brain forms the respiration regulatory center, a series of interconnected brain cells within the lower and middle brain stem which coordinate respiratory movements. The sections are the pneumotaxic center, the apneustic center, and the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups. This section is especially sensitive during infancy, and the neurons can be destroyed if the infant is dropped and/or shaken violently. The result can be death due to shaken baby syndrome.2 Inhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external intercostal muscles. Normal resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per minute. Its time period is 2 seconds. During vigorous inhalation at rates exceeding 35 breaths per minute, or in approaching respiratory failure, accessory muscles of respiration are recruited for support. These consist of sternocleidomastoid, platysma, and the strap muscles of the neck. Inhalation is driven primarily by the diaphragm. When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage expands and the contents of the abdomen are moved downward. This results in a larger thoracic volume, which in turn causes a decrease in intrathoracic pressure. As the pressure in the chest falls, air moves into the conducting zone. Here, the air is filtered, warmed, and humidified as it flows to the lungs. During forced inhalation, as when taking a deep breath, the external intercostal muscles and accessory muscles further expand the thoracic cavity. Exhalation Exhalation is generally a passive process; however, active or forced exhalation is achieved by the abdominal and the internal intercostal muscles. During this process air is forced or exhaled out. The lungs have a natural elasticity; as they recoil from the stretch of inhalation, air flows back out until the pressures in the chest and the atmosphere reach equilibrium.3 During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles, generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs. Circulation The right side of the heart pumps blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The trunk branches into right and left pulmonary arteries to the pulmonary blood vessels. The vessels generally accompany the airways and also undergo numerous branchings. Once the gas exchange process is complete in the pulmonary capillaries, blood is returned to the left side of the heart through four pulmonary veins, two from each side. The pulmonary circulation has a very low resistance, due to the short distance within the lungs, compared to the systemic circulation, and for this reason, all the pressures within the pulmonary blood vessels are normally low as compared to the pressure of the systemic circulation loop. Virtually all the body's blood travels through the lungs every minute. The lungs add and remove many chemical messengers from the blood as it flows through pulmonary capillary bed. The fine capillaries also trap blood clots that have formed in systemic veins. Gas exchange The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange between the external environment and an organism's circulatory system. In humans and mammals, this exchange facilitates oxygenation of the blood with a concomitant removal of carbon dioxide and other gaseous metabolic wastes from the circulation. As gas exchange occurs, the acid-base balance of the body is maintained as part of homeostasis. If proper ventilation is not maintained, two opposing conditions could occur: 1 respiratory acidosis, a life threatening condition, and 2 respiratory alkalosis. Upon inhalation, gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which are the basic functional component of the lungs. The alveolar walls are extremely thin approx. 0.2 micrometres. These walls are composed of a single layer of epithelial cells type I and type II epithelial cells in close proximity to the pulmonary capillaries which are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells. The close poximity of these two cell types allows permeability to gases and, hence, gas exchange. Non-respiratory Functions Vocalization The movement of gas through the larynx, pharynx and mouth allows humans to speak, or phonate. Because of this, gas movement is extremely vital for communication purposes. Temperature control Panting in dogs Coughing and sneezing Development of Respiratory System in Animals Humans and Mammals The respiratory system lies dormant in the human fetus during pregnancy. At birth, the respiratory system has under-developed lungs. This is due to the incomplete development of the alveoli type II cells in the lungs, necessary for the production of surfactant. The infant lungs do not function due to collapse of alveoli caused by surface tension of water remaining in the lungs, which in normal cases would be prohibited by the presence of surfactant. This condition may be avoided by giving the mother a series of steroid shots in the final week prior to delivery, which will have weard the development of type II alveolar cells.4 Disease and the Respiratory System Disorders of the respiratory system can be classified into four general areas: Obstructive conditions e.g., emphysema, bronchitis, asthma attacks Restrictive conditions e.g., fibrosis, sarcoidosis, alveolar damage, pleural effusion Vascular diseases e.g., pulmonary edema, pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension Infectious, environmental and other diseases e.g., pneumonia, tuberculosis, asbestosis, particulate pollutants: Coughing is of major importance, as it is the body's main method to remove dust, mucus, saliva, and other debris from the lungs. Inability to cough can lead to infection. Deep breathing exercises may help keep finer structures of the lungs clear from particulate matter, etc. The respiratory tract is constantly exposed to microbes due to the extensive surface area, which is why the respiratory system includes many mechanisms to defend itself and prevent pathogens from entering the body. Disorders of the respiratory system are usually treated internally by a pulmonologist or respiratory physician. Respiratory System in Plants Gas exchange in plants Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and then exhale oxygen gas, a waste product of photosynthesis. However, plants also sometimes respire as humans do, using oxygen and producing carbon dioxide. Plant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon dioxide through holes on the undersides of their leaves known as stomata sing:stoma. However, most plants require little air.citation needed Most plants have relatively few living cells outside of their surface because air which is required for metabolic content can penetrate only skin deep. However, most plants are not involved in highly aerobic activities, and thus have no need of these living cells. See also Liquid breathing Aquatic respiration Involuntary control of respiration Gill Avian respiratory system Respiratory tract Major systems of the human body Muscles of respiration References Perkins, M. 2003. Respiration Power Point Presentation. Biology 182 Course Handout. Orange Coast College, Costa Mesa, CA. Medical Dictionary Notes ^ Maton, Anthea; Jean, Hopkins Susan, Johnson Charles William, McLaughlin Maryanna Quon Warner David, LaHart Wright, Jill D. 1995. Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 108-118. ISBN 0-12-981176-1. ^ Fact sheet on Shaken Baby Syndrome ^ A simple model of how the lungs are inflated can be built from a bell jar ^ Department of Environmental Biology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia External links Science aid: Respiratory System A simple guide for high school students Introduction to Respiratory System A high school level description of the respiratory system The Respiratory System University level v d e Human organ systems Cardiovascular system Digestive system Endocrine system Immune system Integumentary system Lymphatic system Muscular system Nervous system Reproductive system Respiratory system Skeletal system Urinary system v d e Anatomy: respiratory system Upper respiratory tract Nose Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx Lower respiratory tract Trachea Lungs Bronchi, Alveoli, Conducting zone, Respiratory zone v d e Anatomy of torso, respiratory system: Lungs and related structures lungs right left lingula apex base root cardiac notch cardiac impression hilum borders anterior, posterior, inferior surfaces costal, mediastinal, diaphragmatic fissures oblique, horizontal conducting zone trachea tracheal rings, carina bronchi main bronchus right, left lobar/secondary bronchi eparterial bronchus segmental/tertiary bronchi bronchopulmonary segment bronchiole terminal bronchiole respiratory zone respiratory bronchiole alveolar duct alveolus alveolar-capillary barrier pleurae parietal pleura cervical, costal, mediastinal, diaphragmatic visceral pleura pulmonary ligament recesses costomediastinal, costodiaphragmatic pleural cavity v d e Respiratory system, physiology: respiratory physiology Volumes lung volumes - vital capacity - functional residual capacity - respiratory minute volume - closing capacity - dead space - spirometry - body plethysmography - peak flow meter - thoracic independent volume Airways ventilation V positive pressure - breath inhalation, exhalation -respiratory rate - respirometer - pulmonary surfactant - compliance - hysteresivity - airway resistance - bronchial hyperresponsiveness - bronchial challenge test Blood pulmonary circulation - perfusion Q - hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction - pulmonary shunt Interactions ventilation/perfusion ratio V/Q and scan - zones of the lung - gas exchange - pulmonary gas pressures - alveolar gas equation - alveolar-arterial gradient - hemoglobin - oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve 2,3-DPG, Bohr effect, Haldane effect - carbonic anhydrase chloride shift - oxyhemoglobin - respiratory quotient - arterial blood gas - diffusion capacity - Dlco Control of respiration pons pneumotaxic center, apneustic center - medulla dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group - chemoreceptors central, peripheral - pulmonary stretch receptors Hering-Breuer reflex Insufficiency high altitude - oxygen toxicity - hypoxia v d e Pathology of respiratory system J, 460-519, respiratory diseases Upper RT including URTIs, Common cold Head sinuses: Sinusitis nose: Rhinitis Vasomotor rhinitis, Atrophic rhinitis, Hay fever - Nasal polyp - Deviated septum tonsil: Tonsillitis - Adenoid hypertrophy - Peritonsillar abscess Neck pharynx: Pharyngitis Strep throat larynx: Laryngitis - Croup - Laryngospasm - vocal folds: Vocal fold nodule - epiglottis: Epiglottitis trachea: Tracheitis - Tracheal stenosis Lower RT/lung disease including LRTIs Pneumonia Viral - Bacterial/Atypical pneumonia Mycoplasma - Fungal pneumonia Pneumocystis pneumonia - Parasitic pneumonia - Bronchopneumonia - Chemical pneumonia Mendelson's syndrome Bronchial/ obstructive Acute: Bronchitis Acute, Chronic - Bronchiolitis Chronic: Emphysema - COPD - Asthma Status asthmaticus - Diffuse panbronchiolitis - Bronchiectasis Interstitial/ restrictive External agents/ occupational lung disease Pneumoconiosis Asbestosis, Baritosis, Bauxite fibrosis, Berylliosis, Caplan's syndrome, Chalicosis, Coalworker's pneumoconiosis, Siderosis, Silicosis, Byssinosis Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Bagassosis, Bird fancier's lung, Farmer's lung Other ARDS - Pulmonary edema - Löffler's syndrome/Eosinophilic pneumonia - Respiratory hypersensitivity Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis Hamman-Rich syndrome - Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Obstructive or restrictive Atelectasis - Bronchiolitis obliterans Pleural cavity/mediastinum Suppuration Empyema - Lung abscess Pleural disease/pleural effusion Hemothorax - Pneumothorax - Hemopneumothorax - Hydrothorax - Pleurisy Mediastinal disease Mediastinal emphysema - Mediastinitis Other/general Respiratory failure - Influenza - SARS - Idiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis see also congenital, neoplasia v d e Prenatal development/Mammalian development of respiratory system overview Upper Nasal placode Lower Laryngotracheal groove - Lung buds Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Respiratory_system Categories: Respiratory therapy | Respiratory system | Pulmonology | Exercise physiologyHidden categories: All articles with statements | Articles with statements since February 2007 Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية Bân-lâm-gú Català Česky Cymraeg Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Ã?slenska Italiano עברית Magyar МакедонÑ?ки Bahasa Melayu 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ پښتو Polski Português РуÑ?Ñ?кий Simple English SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька ä¸æ–‡ SlovenÄ?ina This page was last modified on 19 August 2008, at 17:08
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