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20-September-2008 09:55:50 - Urine Notepad To comply with 's quality standards, this article may need to be rewritten. Reason: Lack of structure, references, formality and data The discussion page may contain suggestions. Medicine or the Medicine Portal may be able to help recruit one. If a more appropriate or portal exists, please adjust this template accordingly. This article or section contains weasel words, vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. This article is about the urine of animals generally. For urine produced specifically by the human body, see Human urine. Not to be confused with Uren. Look up urine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Human Urine Sample Human Urine Sample Urine is an aqueous solution of electrolytes and metabolites excreted by mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and amphibians. Although urine is excreted as a paste uric acid by most birds, it is commonly excreted as a fluid varying in color from clear, when dilute, to a dark amber, when concentrated. Urine is produced by the kidneys, and plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis by removing excess water, electrolytes such as sodium, chloride, potassium, and calcium ions, urea and other metabolites from the blood. The production of urine is called diuresis. Urine samples are often taken by doctors to check for symptoms of disease. Contents 1 Composition 1.1 Water 1.2 Electrolytes 1.3 Nitrogen 1.4 Acid 1.5 Metabolites 1.6 Dissolved heavy metals 1.7 Glucose 1.8 Bacteria 2 Characteristics 2.1 Color 3 Uses 3.1 Diagnostic tests 3.2 Fertilizer 3.3 Animal repellent 3.4 Munitions 3.5 Textiles 3.6 Hormone replacement therapy 3.7 Antiseptic 4 References 5 See also Composition Water The main constituent of urine is water. All vertebrates must carefully maintain the volume of fluid in their extracellular space in order to prevent fluid overload or dehydration. Some water is inevitably lost during solute excretion, and represents an unavoidable fluid loss. However, the majority of water excreted in the urine is lost to prevent fluid overload. Different animals have different renal physiologies depending on their need to retain water. Freshwater fish, for example, produce very large amounts of very dilute urine, whereas desert-dwelling animals such as the meerkat have very effective renal systems, allowing them to conserve water by producing small amounts of extremely concentrated urine. By comparison, even the most concentrated human urine is relatively dilute. The excretion of water is called aquaresis. Electrolytes Along with volume regulation, urine regulates the osmolarity of an animal's internal space. The concentration of ions in the blood and extra-cellular fluid must stay within a fairly tight range to maintain health and avoid dehydration. Although some ions are lost to normal bodily function such as sweating, most animals have a large surplus of ions in their diets and must excrete them. Most humans, for example, ingest many more sodium and chloride ions than they need in the form of salt - it is secretion of these surplus ions which makes urine taste salty. Nitrogen Urine production and excretion is a vertebrate's primary method for removal of nitrogen. This is a waste product, produced in the form of ammonia by the liver. Excess nitrogen is found in the diet, and released into the blood during the deamination of amino acids in protein metabolism. In fish, where water conservation is not an issue, ammonia is excreted in dilute urine. However, at higher concentrations it is toxic, and so in mammals' urine, this mainly is in the form of urea, produced from ammonia in the liver. Birds generally excrete uric acid as a paste, to further conserve water. Acid The kidneys play a vital role in regulating body pH, preventing acidosis or alkalosis by excreting excess hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions as required. When it leaves the body, urine is usually around pH 6, though it may be as low as 4.5 or as high as 8.2. As urea-the compound which accounts for 75-90% of the nitrogen in urine-begins to decay, hydroxide ions form, raising the pH as high as 9-9.3. The decay of urea into carbon dioxide is catalyzed by urease: NH22CO + H2O → CO2 + 2NH3 Metabolites Animals ingest a wide variety of compounds daily. Not least are humans, who consume an incredible array of natural and artificial chemicals in the form of food, drink and pharmaceutical products. With the exception of vitamins, minerals and other micro-nutrients such as essential fatty acids, none of these are needed or desirable within the body. All are either metabolised by the liver, excreted in bile or filtered from the blood by the kidneys, and excreted in urine. Dissolved heavy metals Studies of urine in organic cattle farms in Sweden in 1999 and 2002 yielded the following concentrations of heavy metals all in μg/kg wet weight:1 Copper: 67 Zinc: 30 Chromium: 5 Lead: 1 Cadmium: 0 Glucose Glucose is constantly lost from the blood into the filtrate at the kidneys - however, active reuptake in the proximal tubule usually prevents any being excreted. This is desirable, as glucose is a valuable source of energy, not a waste product. However, in hyperglycemia - most commonly arising from diabetes mellitus in humans - the tubular limit on glucose reabsorbtion may be breached, in which case some glucose will be lost in the urine. Bacteria In a healthy individual the urine is sterile in the bladder. When transported out of the body different types of dermal bacteria are picked up and freshly excreted urine normally contains 10,000 bacteria per ml.2 Characteristics Main article: Human urine Color Urine is normally yellow because it contains urobilin. It can also be colourless if an excessive amount of water is consumed. Uses Diagnostic tests Main article: Urinalysis Testing urine for its constituents is a cost-effective and non-invasive means of assessing the internal situation of an animal. It is commonly used to test for pregnancy, by measuring levels of hormones excreted. Urinalysis can also be used to test for the metabolites of illegal drugs, if substance abuse is suspected. It is also an invaluable first-line investigation in clinical medicine, where pH, glucose, protein, white blood cell, bacteria and blood content can all be tested to aid in making a diagnosis. Fertilizer Urine has been and is used extensively as fertilizer. Its high nitrogen content allows increased amino acid synthesis by plants. During WWII, Japanese farmers used urine collected in so-called honeypots as cheap fertilizer for their crops. Animal repellent Taking advantage of the scents of male animals' urine, some companies sell animal urine, usually coyote or fox, to cities and other organizations to repel those animals by essentially marking their territory. The scents of carnivore urine bobcat, mountain lion, and wolf, in addition to coyote and fox are also sold to the public in pelletized form to repel garden browsing by herbivores such as squirrels and rabbits, as well as deterring domestic or feral cats from marking territory, or catching birds, in gardens. When the pellets are sprinkled on a target area, the intruding animal will instinctively recognize the territorial urinary scent of its predators and avoid the area. Munitions In historical times, urine was collected and used in the manufacture of gunpowder. Stale urine was filtered through a barrel full of straw and allowed to continue to sour for a year or more. After this period of time, water was used to wash the resulting chemical salts from the straw. This slurry was filtered through wood ashes and allowed to dry in the sun. Saltpeter crystals were then collected and added to sulfur and charcoal to create black powder.12 Textiles Urine has often been used as a mordant to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing. Urine was used for dyes such as indigo where the urea in the urine reacted with the insoluble dye to form a soluble solution. Hormone replacement therapy Steroid hormones extracted from the urine of pregnant marescitation needed are used in a drug sold under the trade name Premarin a neologism derived from 'pregnant mare urine'. The drug, manufactured and sold by Wyeth, is an estrogen replacement therapy used in the treatment of menopause symptoms. Antiseptic Human and animal urine has historically been used as antiseptic. References ^ Guidelines_Urine_Faeces.indd ^ Tortora, G.J., Funke, B.R. and Case, C.L. 1992. Microbiology: An introduction. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Redwood City, California, USA. January 2008 See also Kidneys Human urine Renal physiology Diuresis Diuretics Urine-indicator dye v d e Urinary system, physiology: renal physiology and acid base physiology Filtration Renal blood flow - Ultrafiltration - Countercurrent exchange Hormones affecting filtration Antidiuretic hormone ADH - Aldosterone - Atrial natriuretic peptide Secretion/clearance Pharmacokinetics - Clearance of medications Reabsorption Solvent drag - Na+ - Cl- - urea - glucose - oligopeptides - protein Endocrine Renin - Erythropoietin EPO - Calcitriol Active vitamin D - Prostaglandins Assessing Renal function/ Measures of dialysis Glomerular filtration rate - Creatinine clearance - Renal clearance ratio - Urea reduction ratio - Kt/V - Standardized Kt/V - Hemodialysis product - PAH clearance Effective renal plasma flow - Extraction ratio Acid base physiology Fluid balance - Darrow Yannet diagram - Body water - Interstitial fluid - Extracellular fluid - Intracellular fluid/Cytosol - Plasma - Transcellular fluid - Base excess - Davenport diagram - Anion gap - Arterial blood gas Buffering/compensation Bicarbonate buffering system - Respiratory compensation - Renal compensation Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Urine Categories: Body fluids | UrineHidden categories: articles needing rewrite | Medicine articles needing expert attention | Articles needing expert attention | Pages needing expert attention | Articles with weasel words | All articles with statements | Articles with statements since April 2008 | Articles needing additional references from January 2008 Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages Afrikaans አማáˆáŠ› العربية Aymar ÄŒesky Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Ù?ارسی Français Gà idhlig í•œêµì–´ Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kurdî / كوردی Latina Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ ‪Norsk nynorsk‬ Polski Português Runa Simi РуÑ?Ñ?кий Simple English SlovenÄ?ina Suomi Svenska தமிழà¯? Türkçe ייִדיש ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 19 August 2008, at 12:56
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