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20-September-2008 10:21:21 - Cannabis drug A dried flowered bud of the Cannabis sativa plant. A dried flowered bud of the Cannabis sativa plant. Cannabis, also known as marijuana1 or marihuana, or ganja from Hindi/Sanskrit: गांजा gÄ?njÄ?, hemp,2 is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa, or more often, Cannabis sativa subsp. indica. The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature flowers and subtending leaves of pistillate female plants. The resinous form, known as hashish,3 consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material. The major biologically active chemical compound in cannabis is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC. Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory,4 although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for recreational, religious or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that about four percent5 of the world's adult population use cannabis annually and 0.6 percent daily. Cannabis is the world's most often used illegal drug.6 The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition while others have reduced the priority of enforcement. Cannabis plant Cannabis plant Contents 1 Forms 1.1 Marijuana 1.2 Hashish 1.3 Kief 1.4 Hash oil 2 Methods of consumption 2.1 Smoking 2.2 Vaporization 2.3 E-cigarette 2.4 Oral consumption 2.4.1 Food 2.4.2 Drink 3 History 4 Medical use 5 New breeding and cultivation techniques 6 Legal status 7 Effects 7.1 Health issues 7.2 Gateway drug theory 7.3 Classification 8 Religious use 9 Truth serum 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Forms Marijuana Marijuana Marijuana Marijuana or ganja: the flowering tops of female plants,7 from less than 1% THC to 22% THC; the wide range is probably one of the reasons for the conflicting results from different studies. Psychoactive potency by cannabis plant part is approximately as follows descending order:8 Trichomes Female flowering buds Male flowering buds New shoots Leaves from flower buds Leaves in ascending order of size Stems of leaves petioles in ascending order of size Stems in ascending order of size Roots and seeds Hashish Main article: Hashish Hashish Hashish Hashish pressed keif or charas: a concentrated resin composed of heated glandular trichomes that have been physically extracted,9 usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice. Kief Main article: Kief Kief Kief Kief: 1 The sticky resin saturated bits of plant before pressed into hashish. It's chopped flowering tops of female cannabis plants, often mixed with tobacco; 2 Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif mountains;10 3 sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular heads often incorrectly referred to as crystals or pollen; 4 the crystal trichomes left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana, then smoked. Hash oil Main article: Honey oil Golden cannabis oil hash oil on a card Golden cannabis oil hash oil on a card For example, an ethanol extract of cannabis that has had the ethanol evaporated from it, to leave hash oil. Methods of consumption Smoking Main article: Cannabis smoking Man smoking a 400-mg. cannabis joint Man smoking a 400-mg. cannabis joint A single toke utensil, such as the midwakh shown here or kiseru, avoids the health risk and THC waste of hot burning cigarette papers and permits 25-mg. servings with a low burning temperature. A single toke utensil, such as the midwakh shown here or kiseru, avoids the health risk and THC waste of hot burning cigarette papers and permits 25-mg. servings with a low burning temperature. Usual dosages: Approximately 0.25 g for marijuana11 and 0.1 g for charas,11 but may vary widely. Cannabis can be smoked in a variety of ways, most commonly with implements such as bongs, chillums and smoking pipes, or by rolling joints or blunts. Local methods differ by the preparation of the cannabis plant before use, the parts of the cannabis plant which are used, and the treatment of the smoke before inhalation. Because large particles require a higher burning temperature, herb should be sifted through a 1/16-inch/1.6-mm. screen strainer. In some parts of Africa, a pile of cannabis is simply thrown onto a fire and the smoke inhaled.12 Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus fumigatus To kill potentially dangerous Aspergillus and other microorganisms, researchers Levitz and Diamond 1991 suggested baking marijuana in home ovens at 150 °C 302 °F, for five minutes before smoking. Oven treatment killed conidia of A. fumigatus, A. flavus and A. niger, and did not degrade the active component of marijuana, tetrahydrocannabinol THC.13 Vaporization Cannabis after vaporization Cannabis after vaporization Main article: vaporizer A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365-410 °F 185-210 °C, which causes the active ingredients to evaporate into a gas without burning the plant material the boiling point of THC is 392 °F 200°C at 0.02 mm Hg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure,1415 A lower proportion of toxic chemicals are released than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. A MAPS-NORML study using a Volcano vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.16 However, an older study using less sophisticated vaporizers found some toxins.17 The effects obtained from a vaporizer are noticeably different to that of smoking cannabis. Users have reported a more euphoric hallucinogen type high, because the vapor contains more pure THC.citation needed E-cigarette Main article: e-cigarette This product has a rechargeable battery and a heating element which vaporizes in most brands liquid nicotine from an insertable cartridge. If THC is loaded into the cartridge instead of nicotine, cannabis users may receive the benefits of a vaporizer at lower initial cost. Oral consumption Main article: Cannabis foods Food Hash cakes Hash cakes Various types of cannabis foods on display in a shop window in Amsterdam Various types of cannabis foods on display in a shop window in Amsterdam As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. Although hashish is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when dissolved in ethanol, or combined with butter or other lipids.citation needed The time to onset of effects is usually about an hour and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking herbal cannabis are almost immediate.citation needed Smoking cannabis results in a significant loss of THC and other cannabinoids in the exhaled smoke, by decomposition on burning, and in smoke that is not inhaled. In contrast, all of the active constituents enter the body when cannabis is ingested. It has been shown that the primary active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC by the liver.18 Titration to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation. Drink Cannabis material can be leached in high-proof spirits often grain alcohol to create a Green Dragon. This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves.citation needed Cannabis can also be consumed as a cannabis tea. Although THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble with a solubility of 2800 mg per liter,19 enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb.20 History The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan. Má Pinyin pronunciation, the Chinese expression for hemp, is a pictograph of 2 cannabis plants being raised in a sheltered area. The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan. Má Pinyin pronunciation, the Chinese expression for hemp, is a pictograph of 2 cannabis plants being raised in a sheltered area. Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the Neolithic age the age began about 10,000 B.C. in the Middle East and somewhat later elsewhere,21 as indicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.4 The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit गांजा/গাà¦?জা ganja in modern Indic languages.2223 The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.24 Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans.25 Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu meaning way to produce smoke, a probable origin of the modern word 'Cannabis'.26 Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians and Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans the kapnobatai-those who walk on smoke/clouds burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance.27 Members of the cult of Dionysus, believed to have originated in Thrace Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey, are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.2829 Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 A.D. Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 A.D. Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.30 Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews and early Christians.31 It was also used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.32 Medical use Main article: Medical cannabis A synthetic form of one chemical in marijuana, Δdelta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol THC, is a controversial treatment for medical use. The American Marijuana Policy Project, a pro-cannabis organization, claims that cannabis is an ideal therapeutic drug for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments.33 Other medical uses may included fighting cancer, according to an isolated study by scientists in Italy. This study states that cannabidiol CBD, a chemical found in marijuana, inhibits growth of cancer cells in animals.34 The FDA and comparable authorities in Western Europe, including the Netherlands, have not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease. The current view of the United States Food and Drug Administration is that if there is any future of marijuana as a medicine, it lies in its isolated components, the cannabinoids and their synthetic derivatives.35 A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named dronabinol has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients.36 Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/AIDS and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than pot and has not been shown to be effective or safe.37 Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some data exist, showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke marijuana,38 but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.39 Although marijuana is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.40 Medical marijuana is used for analgesia, or pain relief. Marijuana is used for analgesia only in the context of a handful of illnesses e.g., headache, dysentery, menstrual cramps, and depression that are often cited by marijuana advocates as medical reasons to justify the drug being available as a prescription medication.41 It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder.42 Case reports have found that cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.434445 Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.43 A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.46 THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.47 Another use for medical marijuana is movement disorders. Marijuana is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with multiple sclerosis; this has been acknowledged by the Institute of Medicine, but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures.48 Marijuana numbs the nervous system slightly, possibly preventing shock. A synthetic version of the major active compound in cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol Marinol in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.49 New breeding and cultivation techniques Main article: Cannabis drug cultivation Cannabis Strain: Orange Kush Cannabis Strain: Orange Kush It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol was discovered and understood. However, potent seedless marijuana such as Thai sticks were already available at that time. In fact, the sinsemilla technique of producing high-potency marijuana has been practiced in India for centuries.citation needed Sinsemilla Spanish for without seed is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants which produce little THC themselves are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response in part to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis and a general increase in potency over the past 20 years. The average levels of THC in marijuana sold in United States rose from 3.5% in 1988 to 7% in 2003 and 8.5% in 2006.50 Skunk cannabis is a potent strain of cannabis, grown through selective breeding and usually hydroponics, that is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativa and C. indica. Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in coffeehouses in the Netherlands is about 18-19%.51 The average THC content of Skunk #1 is 8.2%; it is a 4-way combination of the cannabis strains Afghani indica, Mexican Gold, Colombian Gold, and Thai: 75% sativa, 25% indica.citation needed This was done via extensive breeding by cultivators in California in the 1970s using the traditional outdoor cropping methods used for centuries.citation needed In proposed revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government is considering rescheduling cannabis back from C to B. One of the reasons is the high-potency marijuana.52 A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study examining male volunteers aged 18-45 years with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use concluded that smoking of cannabis with high THC levels marijuana with 9-23% THC, as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC blood-serum concentrations. This is reflected by an increase of the occurrence of impaired psychomotor skills, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking-style to the higher THC content.53 High THC concentrations in cannabis was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure and psychomotor effects such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness. It was also observed during the study that the effects from a single joint lasted for more than eight hours. Reaction times remained impaired five hours after smoking, when the THC serum concentrations were significantly reduced, but still present. When subjects smoke on several occasions per day, accumulation of THC in blood-serum may occur. Another study showed that consumption of 15 mg of Delta9-THC resulted in no learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task after two hours. In several tasks, delta9-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting riskier speed-accuracy trade-offs.54 Legal status Main article: Legality of cannabis See also: Drug prohibition and Drug liberalization U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics propaganda used in 1935 U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics propaganda used in 1935 Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market. There are also changes in a more restrictive direction such as the closing of coffee shops in the Netherlands, the closing of the open drug market in Christiania, Copenhagen, the Gonzales v. Raich rule in 2005 that the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution allow the federal government to ban the use of marijuana, including medical use anywhere in the United States. Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution. Effects Main article: Effects of cannabis Tetrahydrocannabinol THC is the main active compound in cannabis Tetrahydrocannabinol THC is the main active compound in cannabis Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight55 which, in practical terms, is a varying amount, dependent upon potency. A related compound, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin, also known as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This cannabinoid has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga marijuana, and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas.citation needed Health issues Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs the British medical journal The Lancet 1 Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs the British medical journal The Lancet 1 Smoking of cannabis is the most harmful method of consumption, since combustion of material and inhalation of smoke in itself from organic materials such as tobacco, wood, gasoline and cannabis causes various health problems. By using a vaporizer or orally consuming cannabis, many health problems and many objections to using cannabis as medicine can be eliminated.5657585960 A recent study by the Canadian government found cannabis smoke contained more toxic substances than tobacco smoke.61 The study determined that marijuana smoke contained 20 times more ammonia, and five times more hydrogen cyanide and nitrogen oxides than tobacco smoke. Smoking cannabis is a potentially harmful method of consuming cannabis, yet the most practiced. Smoking cannabis is a potentially harmful method of consuming cannabis, yet the most practiced. In spite of this, a recent large-scale study found no correlation between heavy marijuana use and lung cancer, despite noting that cannabis contains the same carcinogens as tobacco. The same study found a 20-fold increase in lung-cancer rates of smokers who consumed two or more packs of cigarettes per day.62 These researchers postulated that the THC present may have a protective effect by causing aging cells to die before they become cancerous.63 Other recent research suggest the cannabinoid CBD may stop certain cancers from spreading, although not in concentrations consumed during smoking.64 Tar, a sticky incomplete combustion product from smoking, clogs the lungs of both tobacco and cannabis smokers; vaporization is a much healthier alternative. Tar, a sticky incomplete combustion product from smoking, clogs the lungs of both tobacco and cannabis smokers; vaporization is a much healthier alternative. In contrast, a study published in the January 2008 ion of the journal Respirology found that regular cannabis smokers who developed bullous lung disease2 did so on average 24 years sooner than tobacco smoking counterparts.65 Researchers attributed this to the inhalation of a larger volume of smoke, and typically holding it for four times longer than tobacco smokers. Bullous lung disease is considered an uncommon cause of respiratory distress.66 In general, habitual inhalation of any kind of smoke is detrimental to lung health.67 Cannabis use has been linked to exacerbating the effects of depression, psychosis, schizophrenia, bronchitis, and emphysema by several peer-reviewed studies for those who are vulnerable to such illnesses based on personal or family history.68 More recently, the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study published research showing an increased risk of psychosis for cannabis users with a certain genetic predisposition, held by 25% of the population.69 Vaporization pipe with flame filter 28. Tobacco, herbs or essential oils 36. Flame filter made of a stack of metal screens 5+ or a heat resistant porous material Vaporization pipe with flame filter 28. Tobacco, herbs or essential oils 36. Flame filter made of a stack of metal screens 5+ or a heat resistant porous material Studies have also shown links between heavy long-term use over five joints daily over several years and incidence of heart attacks, strokes, as well as abnormalities in the amygdala and hippocampus regions of the brain.7071 In July 2007, British medical journal The Lancet published a study that indicates that cannabis users have, on average, a 41% greater risk of developing psychosis than non-users. The risk was most pronounced in cases with an existing risk of psychotic disorder, and was said to grow up to 200% for the most-frequent users.727374 Marijuana has been reported both to enhance and lessen the subjective enjoyment of sex. 7576 There is some concern that marijuana may impair reproductive function and contribute to birth defects, but research in this area is not conclusive.77 Gateway drug theory Main article: Gateway drug theory Lifetime cannabis use in Europe Lifetime cannabis use in Europe Since its origin in the 1950s, the gateway drug hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of cannabis drug policy in the United States. One variant is that people, upon trying cannabis for the first time and not finding it dangerous, are then tempted to try other, harder drugs. The validity and implications of these hypotheses are debated.78 A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on social context, individual characteristics, and drug effects to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.79 Some argue that the purported relationship between marijuana and more illicit drugs, as proposed by the gateway theory, is methodologically flawed. A common argument is that a new user of cannabis who doesn't find it dangerous will see the difference between public information regarding the drug and their own experiences, and apply this distrust to public knowledge of other, more powerful drugs. Some studies support the gateway drug model.80 An example from 2007: A stratified, random sample of 1943 adolescents was recruited from secondary schools across Victoria, Australia, at age 14-15 years. This cohort was interviewed on eight occasions until the age of 24-25 years. At age 24 years, 12% of the sample had used amphetamines in the past year, with 1-2% using at least weekly. Young adult amphetamine use was predicted strongly by adolescent drug use and was associated robustly with other drug use and dependence in young adulthood. Associations were stronger for more frequent users. Among young adults who had not been using amphetamines at age 20 years, the strongest predictor of use at age 24 years was the use of other drugs, particularly cannabis, at 20 years.81 Those who were smoking cannabis at the age of 15 were as much as 15 times more likely to be using amphetamines in their early 20s.82 Analysts have hypothesized that the illegal status of cannabis is a possible cause of a gateway drug effect, reasoning that cannabis users are likely to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs in order to acquire cannabis. But it is said that Marijuana is not as harmful or addicting as any other drug.8384 Some contend that by this argument, alcohol and tobacco may also be regarded as gateway drugs. Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.85 A current doctoral thesis from Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, on the neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure, gives support for the cannabis gateway hypothesis in relation to adult opiate abuse. THC exposed rats showed increased motivation for opiate drug use under conditions of stress. However, the cannabis exposure did not correlate to amphetamine use.86 A study87 published in The Lancet on 24 March 2007 was twenty drugs were assigned a risk from zero to three. Dr. David Nutt et al. asked medical, scientific and legal experts to rate 20 different drugs on nine parameters: Physical harm acute, chronic, and intravenous harm Dependence intensity of pleasure, psychological dependence, physical dependence Social harms intoxication, other social harms, health-care costs Cannabis was ranked seventeenth of twenty for mean physical harm score and eleventh for mean dependence score. Not shown is the mean social harm score, which rated ninth, in a tie with amphetamine. Poly drug use is not unusual among established users; statistics from Spain show that cannabis users aged 15 -34 also used amphetamine 9%, ecstasy 11% or cocaine 18% the same year.88 Classification Main article: Psychoactive drug While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either stimulant, depressant, hallucinogen, or antipsychotic, cannabis, containing both THC and CBD, exhibits a mix of all properties, leaning towards hallucinogen properties due to THC being the primary constituent.899091 Religious use Main article: Spiritual use of cannabis In India and Nepal, cannabis has been used by some of the wandering Hindu spiritual sadhus for centuries, and in modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced it as a sacrament.92 Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ, even though the movement was founded in the United States in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church.93 Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the Tree of Life.9495 Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,96 the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism,97 the Cannabis Assembly98 and the Church of Cognizance. Truth serum Cannabis female flowers closeup with trichomes white. These plant parts contain the highest concentration of psychoactive compounds. Cannabis female flowers closeup with trichomes white. These plant parts contain the highest concentration of psychoactive compounds. Cannabis was used as truth serum by the Office of Strategic Services OSS, a US government intelligence agency formed during World War II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed at the OSS labs at St. Elizabeths Hospital; it caused a subject to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information.99 In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS counter-intelligence operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster Lucky Luciano. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with THC concentrate from cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about Luciano's heroin operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.99 See also 1937 Marihuana Tax Act Cannabis political parties Cannabis use disorders Emerald Triangle Fitz Hugh Ludlow The Hasheesh Eater Global Marijuana March Head shop International Opium Convention Intravenous Marijuana Syndrome Legality of cannabis by country List of cannabis strains Marc Emery Marijuana Policy Project National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws Proposition 215 Hemp Hemp oil THC References ^ Compact Oxford Ditctionary definition ^ The Oxford English Dictionary. Any of various preparations of different parts of the cannabis-plant which are smoked, chewed, sniffed or drunk for their intoxicating or hallucinogenic properties and were formerly used medicinally; bhang marijuana, ganja, and charas hashish are different forms of these preparations. It is also notes that cannabis was elliptical reference i.e. slang for Cannabis sativa. ^ Matthew J. Atha - Independent Drug Monitoring Unit. Types of Cannabis Available in the UK. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. ^ a b Rudgley, Richard 1999. in Touchstone: The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. ISBN 0-6848-5580-1. ^ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2006, Cannabis: Why we should care, World Drug Report 1, ISBN 9-2114-8214-3, http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf. Retrieved on 10 October 2006 p.14 ^ Raetsch, Christian. Enzyklopedie der Psychoaktiven Pflanzen ^ Marijuana- Definitions from Dictionary.com. dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved on 2008-06-23. ^ Marijuana Potency. 64.233.167.104. Retrieved on 2008-07-13. ^ Hashish - Definitions from Dictionary.com. dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved on 2008-06-23. ^ Zijlma, Anouk. Smoking hashish in Morocco. About.com. Retrieved on 2007-02-27. ^ a b Rätsch, Christian. Enzyklopädie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen. Botanik, Ethnopharmakologie und Anwendungen., 179. ISBN 978-3855025701. ^ Erowid Cannabis Vault : Spiritual Use #2. www.erowid.org. Retrieved on 2008-07-13. ^ Microbiological contaminants of marijuana. www.hempfood.com. Retrieved on 2008-06-22. ^ Air Temperature Table. Retrieved on 2007-09-22.. Volcanotm Operating Manual. Storz Bickel, Tuttlingen, Germany. ^ 1989. The Merck Index, 11th ed., Merck Co., Rahway, New Jersey ^ Gieringer, Dale H.; Joseph St. Laurent, Scott Goodrich 2004. Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds pdf. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics 4 1: 7-27. doi:10.1300/J175v04n01_02. Retrieved on 2006-04-21. ^ Gieringer, Dale. Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study. Retrieved on 2006-04-21. ^ Paulo Borini; Romeu Cardoso Guimarães; Sabrina Bicalho Borini May 2004. Possible hepatotoxicity of chronic marijuana usage. Sao Paulo Medical Journal 122 3. doi:10.1590/S1516-31802004000300007. Retrieved on 2006-05-02. ^ ChemIDplus Lite. chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov. 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People's Daily Online 2006. Retrieved on 2007-02-25. ^ Hong-En Jiang et al. 2006. A new insight into Cannabis sativa Cannabaceae utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108 3: 414-422. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034. Retrieved on 2007-02-25. ^ Walton, Robert P. 1938. Marijuana, America's New Drug Problem. J. B. Lippincott. p.6 ^ Cannabis linked to Biblical healing. Retrieved on 2007-08-20. ^ Ibn Taymiyya. Le haschich et l'extase. ISBN 2-8416-1174-4. ^ references/http://www.mpp.org/news/low-dose-pot-eases-pain-while.html ^ Cannabidiol Dramatically Inhibits Breast Cancer Cell Growth, Study Says. Retrieved on 2007-08-20. ^ Meyer, Robert J.. http://www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html Testimony before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Committee on Government Reform. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. ^ Cannabis lifts Alzheimer appetite. BBC. 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Muller, U. Schneider, A. Koblenz, M. Jöbges, H. Kolbe, T. Daldrup, H.M. Emrich 2002. Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol THC: A Randomized Crossover Trial. Pharmacopsychiatry 35 2: 57. doi:10.1055/s-2002-25028. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. ^ R. Sandyk, G. Awerbuch 1988. Marijuana and Tourette's Syndrome. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 8 6: 444. doi:10.1097/00004714-198812000-00021. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. ^ RamÃirez, B. G., C. Blázquez, T. Gómez del Pulgar, M. Guzmán, and M. L. de Ceballos 2005. Prevention of Alzheimer's disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation. Journal of Neuroscience 25 8^: 1904-1913. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4540-04.2005. PMID 15728830. Retrieved on 2007-02-27. ^ Steffens, S.,Veillard, N.R., et al.. Low dose oral cannabinoid therapy reduces progression of atherosclerosis in mice. Nature 474 7034: 782-786. ^ Randall, Blanchard 1992. Medical use of marijuana policy and regulatory issues. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. OCLC 29975643. ^ Koch, W. 2005-06-23. Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada. USA Today. Retrieved on 2007-02-27. ^ Marijuana sold in U.S. stronger than ever. MSNBC. Retrieved on 2007-09-21. ^ World Drug Report 2006. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved on 2008-02-25. Ch. 2.3 ^ BBC: Cannabis laws to be strengthened.May 2008 20:55 UK ^ Tj. T. Mensinga et al., A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study on the pharmacokinetics and effects of cannabis, RIVM, http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/267002002.pdf. Retrieved on 21 September 2007 ^ Curran H.V., et al. 2002. Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved on 2007-09-21. ^ http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt ^ Harm Reduction Journal. harmreductionjournal.com. 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BMJ. ^ Marijuana may increase psychosis risk, CTV. ^ Marijuana and Sex: A Classic Combination ^ UCSB's SexInfo - Sex Under the Influence ^ For details, see main article, Effects of cannabis ^ RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as gateway to the use of cocaine and heroin. RAND Corporation 2002-12-02. Retrieved on 2007-02-27. ^ Is cannabis a gateway drug? Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and the use of other illicit drugs - UQ eSpace. espace.library.uq.edu.au. Retrieved on 2008-06-19. ^ Saitz, Richard 2003-02-18. Is marijuana a gateway drug?. Journal Watch. Retrieved on 2007-02-27. ^ Degenhardt, Louisa et al 2007. Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. ^ Cannabis linked to use of amphetamines. ABC News Australia 2007-07-18. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. ^ Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM 2002. Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect. Addiction 97 12: 1493-504. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x. PMID 12472629. ^ Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ. Retrieved on 2006-12-24. ^ Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M 1993. Cigarette smoking as a predictor of alcohol and other drug use by children and adolescents: evidence of the gateway drug effect. The Journal of school health 63 7: 302-6. PMID 8246462. ^ Ellgren, Maria 2007. Neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure in relation to the gateway hypothesis. Karolinska Institutet. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. ^ Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C 2007. Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Lancet 369 9566: 1047-53. doi:10.1016/S0140-67360760464-4. PMID 17382831. ^ EMCDDA Annual report 2006: the state of the drugs problem in Europe, ch. 8 ^ McKim, William A 2002. Drugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology 5th ion. Prentice Hall, 400. ISBN 0-13-048118-1. ^ Information on Drugs of Abuse. Commonly Abused Drug Chart. Retrieved on July 15, 2007. ^ Stafford, Peter 1992. Psychedelics Encyclopedia. ISBN 0914171518. ^ Joseph Owens. Dread, The Rastafarians of Jamaica. ISBN 0-4359-8650-3. ^ The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church. Marijuana and the Bible. Schaffer Library of Drug Policy. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. ^ Zion Light Ministry. Retrieved on 2007-08-20. ^ Chris Bennett, Lynn Osburn, Judy Osburn 1938. Green Gold: the Tree of LifeMarijuana in Magic Religion. Access Unlimited, 418. ISBN 0-9629-8722-0. ^ The Hawai'i Cannabis Ministry. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. ^ Cantheism. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. ^ Cannabis Assembly. Retrieved on 2007-09-13. ^ a b Alexander Cockburn; Jeffrey St. Clair 1998. Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press. Verso, 117-118. ISBN 1859841392. 3 Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 Further reading Howard Markel 2002-10-27. For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away, New York Times. Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt 2002. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study. British Medical Journal 325: 1212 - 1213. doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1212. PMID 12446537. Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig 2005. Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Biol Psychiatry 25: 1117 - 1127. Henderson, Mark 2005-04-12. One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis, The Times. Bruce Mirken and Neel Makwana Aston Birmingham: Psychosis, Hype And Baloney, AlterNet 2005-03-07. James Huff and Po Chan October 2000. Antitumor Effects of THC. Environmental Health Perspectives 108 10: Correspondence. PMID 11097557. Booth, Martin 2005. Cannabis: A History. ISBN 0-312-32220-8. Long term impact of Cannabis use of 16 year olds Long-term impact of the Gatehouse Project on Cannabis use of 16-year-olds in Australia. Research Papers, journal of school health 2004-01-01. External links Look up marijuana in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Marijuana in Jamaica Marijuana Policy Project National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws Wiktionary appendix of cannabis slang Various slang terms for cannabis Comprehensive Cannabis Faqs and Marijuana information Extensive list of notable cannabis users Debunking Myths about Marijuana Since 2002 Research paper on the effects of marijuana The Report of the Canadian Government Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs - 1972 - DRCNet Online Library of Drug Policy Marihuana Medical Access Regulations in Canada Pot Shrinks Tumors; Government Knew in '74 University of Maryland, CECAR: Marijuana www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/marijuana v d e Cannabis resources General Portal · Cultivation Indoor · Outdoor · Alternative methods · Culture 420 · Film · Drug · Health · Industrial · Legal · Medicinal · Spiritual Preparations Bhang · Hashish · Kief · Honey oil · Cannabis hashish rosin Use Smoking · Blunt · Bong · Bowl · Chillum · Dugout · Gravity bong · Joint · Pipe · Shotgun · Vaporizer · Spots Strains Acapulco gold · BC Bud · Panama Red · G-13 · Kush · Nederwiet · Northern Lights · Purple Haze · White Widow Oral consumption Cannabis foods · Tea · Green Dragon Organizations AAMC · BLCC · Buyers Club · CCRMG · DPA · FCA · GMM · LCA · LEAP · MPP · NORML · Political parties · POT · Promena · Rescheduling Coalition · ASA · SAFER · SSDP · THC Ministry · Therapeutics Alliance · MAPS v d e Cannabinoids Plant cannabinoids CBD CBDV CBN CBG CBV CBL THC THC-C4 THCV Cannabinoid metabolites 11-Hydroxy-THC 11-nor-9-Carboxy-THC Endogenous cannabinoids Arachidonoyl ethanolamide Anandamide or AEA 2-Arachidonoylglycerol 2-AG 2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether noladin ether Virodhamine N-arachidonoyl-dopamine NADA; Oleamide Synthetic cannabinoid agonists Classical cannabinoids Dibenzopyrans A-41988 Ajulemic acid AM-087 AM-411 AM-855 AM-905 AM-906 AM-919 AM-938 AM-4030 AMG-1 AMG-3 AMG-36 AMG-41 Dexanabinol HU-211 DMHP Dronabinol HU-210 JWH-051 JWH-133 JWH-139 L-759,633 L-759,656 Levonantradol Nabilone Nabitan O-806 O-823 O-1057 O-1125 O-1238 O-2545 O-2694 Parahexyl THC-O-acetate THC-O-phosphate Nonclassical cannabinoids CP 47,497 CP 55,244 CP 55,940 HU-308 2-Isopropyl-5-methyl-1-2,6-dihydroxy-4-nonylphenylcyclohex-1-ene Aminoalkylindoles AM-630 AM-1241 JWH-015 JWH-018 JWH-073 JWH-081 JWH-200 L-768,242 Pravadoline WIN 55,212-2 Aminoalkylpyrroles JWH-030 JWH-147 JWH-307 Eicosanoids AM-883 Arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide Arachidonylcyclopropylamide Methanandamide O-585 O-689 O-1812 O-1860 O-1861 Others BAY 38-7271 BAY 59-3074 GW 842,166X JWH-171 O-2220 Endocannabinoid activity enhancers AM-404 CAY-10401 CAY-10402 N-arachidonoyl-serotonin O-1624 PF-622 PF-750 URB-597 URB-602 URB-754 Cannabinoid antagonists and inverse agonists AM-251 AM-281 AM-630 AVE-1625 BML-190 CAY-10508 CB-25 CB-52 JTE-907 LY-320,135 MK-9470 NESS-0327 O-1184 O-2050 O-2654 Rimonabant SLV-319 SR-144,528 Surinabant Taranabant VCHSR Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Cannabis_drug Categories: Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | Medicinal use of cannabis | CannabisHidden categories: All articles with statements | Articles with statements since May 2008 | Articles with statements since April 2008 Views Article Discussion View source History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages БългарÑ?ки Català Česky Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Galego í•œêµì–´ Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Ã?slenska Italiano עברית LatvieÅ¡u Lietuvių Lojban Magyar МакедонÑ?ки മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ Polski Português РуÑ?Ñ?кий Simple English SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Suomi Shqip Svenska Tatarça/Татарча Tiếng Việt Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька West-Vlams ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 18 August 2008, at 21:32
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