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14-September-2008 10:43:23 - Peripheral vascular disease Peripheral vascular disease Classification and external resources ICD-10 I73.9 ICD-9 443.9 DiseasesDB 31142 eMedicine med/391 emerg/862 MeSH D016491 Peripheral vascular disease PVD, also known as peripheral artery disease PAD or peripheral artery occlusive disease PAOD, is a collator for all diseases caused by the obstruction of large peripheral arteries, which can result from atherosclerosis, inflammatory processes leading to stenosis, an embolism or thrombus formation. It causes either acute or chronic ischemia lack of blood supply, typically of the legs. Contents 1 Classification 2 Symptoms 3 Causes 4 Diagnosis 5 Prevalence and Incidence 6 Therapy 7 Associations 8 Guidelines 9 References 10 External links Classification Peripheral artery occlusive disease is commonly divided in the Fontaine stages, introduced by Dr René Fontaine in 1954:1 I: mild pain on walking claudication II: severe pain on walking relatively shorter distances intermittent claudication III: pain while resting IV: tissue loss gangrene Symptoms Claudication - pain, weakness, or cramping in muscles due to decreased blood flow Sores, wounds, or ulcers that heal slowly or not at all Noticeable change in color blueness or paleness or temperature coolness when compared to the other limb Diminished hair and nail growth on affected limb and digits. Causes Smoking - tobacco use in any form is the single most important modifiable cause of PVD internationally. Smokers have up to a tenfold increase in relative risk for PVD in a dose-related effect. Exposure to second-hand smoke from environmental exposure has also been shown to promote changes in blood vessel lining endothelium which is a precursor to atherosclerosis. Diabetes mellitus - between two and four times increased risk of PVD by causing endothelial and smooth muscle cell dysfunction in peripheral arteries. Diabetics account for up to 70% of nontraumatic amputations performed, and a known diabetic who smokes runs an approximately 30% risk of amputation within 5 years. Dyslipidemia - elevation of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceride levels each have been correlated with accelerated PVD. Correction of dyslipidemia by diet and/or medication is associated with a major improvement in short-term rates of heart attack and stroke. This benefit is gained even though current evidence does not demonstrate a major reversal of peripheral and/or coronary atherosclerosis. Hypertension - elevated blood pressure is correlated with an increase in the risk of developing PVD, as well as in associated coronary and cerebrovascular events heart attack and stroke. Other risk factors which are being studied include levels of various inflammatory mediators such as C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and fibrinogen. Risk of PVD also increases if the patient is: over the age of 50, African American, male, obese, or has a personal history of vascular disease, heart attack, or stroke. Diagnosis Upon suspicion of PVD, the first-line study is the ankle brachial pressure index ABPI/ABI which is a measure of the fall in blood pressure in the arteries supplying the legs. A reduced ABPI less than 0.9 is consistent with PVD. Values of ABPI below 0.8 indicate moderate disease and below 0.5 severe disease. It is possible for conditions which stiffen the vessel walls such as calcifications that occur in the setting of chronic diabetes to produce incorrect readings and high values1.3, meriting further investigation regardless. If ABPI's are abnormal the next step is generally a lower limb doppler ultrasound examination to look at site and extent of atherosclerosis at the femoral artery. Other imaging can be performed by angiography, where a catheter is inserted into the femoral artery and selectively guided to the artery in question and then used to inject radiodense contrast agent whilst an X-ray is taken. Any stenosis of the arteries can be identified and treated at the same time by balloon angioplasty if the stenosis is over a short segment 3cm. However if the artery is occluded or there is diffuse disease present, then arterial bypass surgery may be required. Modern multislice computerized tomography CT scanners provide direct imaging of the arterial system as an alternative to angiography. CT provides complete evaluation of the aorta and lower limb arteries without the need for an angiogram's arterial injection of contrast agent. Prevalence and Incidence The prevalence of peripheral vascular disease in people aged over 55 years is 10%-25% and increases with age; 70%-80% of affected individuals are asymptomatic; only a minority ever require revascularisation or amputation.2 In the USA peripheral arterial disease affects 12-20 percent of Americans age 65 and older. Despite its prevalence and cardiovascular risk implications, only 25 percent of PAD patients are undergoing treatment.3 The incidence of symptomatic PVD increases with age, from about 0.3% per year for men aged 40-55 years to about 1% per year for men aged over 75 years. The prevalence of PVD varies considerably depending on how PAD is defined, and the age of the population being studied.2 Diagnosis is critical, as people with PAD have a four to five times higher risk of heart attack or stroke. In Western Australia, the prevalence of symptomatic disease at around 60 years of age is about 5%.4 A study from the NHANES 1999-2000 data found that PVD affects approximately 5 million adults.3 The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial and U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study trials in people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively, demonstrated that glycemic control is more strongly associated with microvascular disease than macrovascular disease. It may be that pathologic changes occurring in small vessels are more sensitive to chronically elevated glucose levels than is atherosclerosis occurring in larger arteries.5 Therapy Dependent on the severity of the disease, the following steps can be taken: Conservative measures include Smoking cessation cigarettes promote PVD and are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Regular exercise for those with claudication helps open up alternative small vessels collateral flow and the limitation in walking often improves. Medication with aspirin, clopidogrel and statins, which reduce clot formation and cholesterol levels, respectively can help with disease progression and address the other cardiovascular risks that the patient is likely to have. Angioplasty PTA or percutaneous transluminal angioplasty can be done on solitary lesions in large arteries, such as the femoral artery. Plaque excision, in which the plaque is scraped off of the inside of the vessel wall. Occasionally, bypass grafting is needed to circumvent a seriously stenosed area of the arterial vasculature. Generally, the saphenous vein is used, although artificial Gore-Tex material is often used for large tracts when the veins are of lesser quality. Rarely, sympathectomy is used - removing the nerves that make arteries contract, effectively leading to vasodilatation. When gangrene of toes has set in, amputation is often a last resort to stop infected dying tissues from causing septicemia. Arterial thrombosis or embolism has a dismal prognosis, but is occasionally treated successfully with thrombolysis. Associations Many PVD patients also have angina pectoris or have had myocardial infarction. There is also an increased risk for stroke. The moderate consumption of alcohol has been found to be associated with a reduction of the risk of PVD by almost one-third compared to those who do not drink alcohol.6 Guidelines Several different guideline standards have been developed, including: TASC II Guidelines789 ACC/AHA Guidelines10 References ^ Fontaine R, Kim M, Kieny R 1954. Die chirugische Behandlung der peripheren Durchblutungsstörungen. Surgical treatment of peripheral circulation disorders in German. Helvetica Chirurgica Acta 21 5/6: 499-533. PMID 14366554. ^ a b Peripheral arterial disease prevention and prevalence. Peripheral Arterial Disease Nov 1 2007. Retrieved on 2007-12-03. ^ a b A. Richey Sharrett, MD, DRPH Sep 21 2007. Peripheral arterial disease prevalence. Peripheral Arterial Disease. Retrieved on 2007-12-03. ^ Hiatt W, Hoag S, Hamman R. Sep 21 1995. Effect of diagnostic criteria on the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease. Effect of diagnostic criteria on the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease. Retrieved on 2007-12-03. ^ Elizabeth Selvin, PHD, MPH, Keattiyoat Wattanakit, MD, MPH, Michael W. Steffes, MD, PHD, Josef Coresh, MD, PHD and A. Richey Sharrett, MD, DRPH Oct 20 2005. HbA1c and Peripheral Arterial Disease in Diabetes. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Retrieved on 2007-12-03. ^ Camargo CA, Stampfer MJ, Glynn RJ, et al February 1997. Prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and risk of peripheral arterial disease in US male physicians. Circulation 95 3: 577-80. PMID 9024142. ^ Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, Nehler MR, Harris KA, Fowkes FG; TASC II Working Group, Bell K, Caporusso J, Durand-Zaleski I, Komori K, Lammer J, Liapis C, Novo S, Razavi M, Robbs J, Schaper N, Shigematsu H, Sapoval M, White C, White J; TASC II Working Group. 2007. Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease TASC II. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 33 Suppl 1: S1-75. doi:10.1016/j.ejvs.2006.09.024. PMID 17140820. ^ Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, Nehler MR, Harris KA, Fowkes FG; TASC II Working Group, Bell K, Caporusso J, Durand-Zaleski I, Komori K, Lammer J, Liapis C, Novo S, Razavi M, Robbs J, Schaper N, Shigematsu H, Sapoval M, White C, White J; TASC II Working Group. 2007. Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease TASC II. J Vasc Surg. 45 Suppl S: S5-67. doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2006.12.037. PMID 17223489. ^ Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, Nehler MR, Harris KA, Fowkes FG; TASC II Working Group, Bell K, Caporusso J, Durand-Zaleski I, Komori K, Lammer J, Liapis C, Novo S, Razavi M, Robbs J, Schaper N, Shigematsu H, Sapoval M, White C, White J; TASC II Working Group. 2007. Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease. Int Angiol. 26 2: 81-157. PMID 17489079. ^ Hirsch AT, Haskal ZJ, Hertzer NR, et al 2006. ACC/AHA 2005 guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic: executive summary a collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, Society of Interventional Radiology, and the ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease endorsed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; Society for Vascular Nursing; TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus; and Vascular Disease Foundation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 47 6: 1239-312. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2005.10.009. PMID 16545667. External links Peripheral Arterial Disease at Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy Professional ion - Accessed on 27 March 2007 v d e Cardiovascular disease: vascular disease - Circulatory system pathology I70-I99, 440-459 Arteries, arterioles and capillaries Arterial occlusive disease/ peripheral vascular disease Arteriosclerosis: Atherosclerosis - Intermittent claudication - Atheroma - Monckeberg's arteriosclerosis Stenosis Renal artery stenosis, Carotid artery stenosis - Fibromuscular dysplasia - Degos disease - Aortoiliac occlusive disease Raynaud's phenomenon/Raynaud's disease - Erythromelalgia Aneurysm Aortic aneurysm/Abdominal aortic aneurysm - Cerebral aneurysm - Coronary artery aneurysm - Intracranial berry aneurysm - Dissection Aortic, Carotid, Vertebral - Pseudoaneurysm Other Arteritis Aortitis - Buerger's disease Arteriovenous fistula - Herary hemorrhagic telangiectasia Nevus Spider angioma, Halo nevus, Cherry angioma Veins Venous thrombosis/ Phlebitis/ Thrombophlebitis primarily lower limb Deep vein thrombosis abdomen May-Thurner syndrome, Portal vein thrombosis, Budd-Chiari syndrome, Renal vein thrombosis upper limb/torso Paget-Schroetter disease, Mondor's disease head Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis Post-thrombotic syndrome Varicose veins Varicocele - Gastric varices - Portacaval anastomosis Hemorrhoid, Esophageal varices, Caput medusae Other Superior vena cava syndrome - Inferior vena cava syndrome - Venous ulcer Arteries or veins Vasculitis - Thrombosis - Embolism Pulmonary embolism, Cholesterol embolism - Angiopathy Macroangiopathy, Microangiopathy Lymphatic disease Lymphadenitis - Lymphedema - Lymphangitis Blood pressure Hypertension Hypertensive heart disease - Hypertensive nephropathy - Secondary hypertension Renovascular hypertension - Pulmonary hypertension Hypotension Orthostatic hypotension See also congenital, neoplasia Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Peripheral_vascular_disease Categories: Cardiovascular diseases | Angiology | Cardiology Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page This page was last modified on 6 September 2008, at 20:4
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