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14-September-2008 12:50:28 - neuroscience This article or section is missing citations or needs footnotes. Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. September 2007 Psychology Greek letter 'psi' Portal History Areas RESEARCH Abnormal Biological Cognitive Developmental Emotion Experimental Evolutionary Mathematical Neuropsychology Neuroscience Personality Positive Psychophysics Social Transpersonal APPLIED Clinical Educational Forensic Health Industrial Organizational School Sport LISTS Publications Topics Therapies view talk Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates of mental processes and their behavioral manifestations. It addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by the neural circuitry. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both psychology and neuroscience, unifying and overlapping with several sub-disciplines such as cognitive psychology, psychobiology and neurobiology. Before the advent of fMRI, cognitive neuroscience was called cognitive psychophysiology. Cognitive neuroscientists have a background in experimental psychology or neurobiology, but may spring from disciplines such as psychiatry, neurology, physics, linguistics and mathematics. Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental paradigms from psychophysics and cognitive psychology, functional neuroimaging, electrophysiological studies of neural systems and, increasingly, cognitive genomics and behavioral genetics. Clinical studies in psychopathology in patients with cognitive deficits constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience. The main theoretical approaches are computational neuroscience and the more traditional, descriptive cognitive psychology theories such as psychometrics. Contents 1 Scientific roots 1.1 Phrenology 1.2 Aggregate field 1.3 Later localizationists 1.4 The neuron doctrine 2 Foundation of the science 3 Applied neurocognitive science technologies 3.1 Military uses 4 Cognitive neuroscience topics 5 Cognitive neuroscience methods 6 Related WikiBooks 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Scientific roots A page from the American Phrenological Journal A page from the American Phrenological Journal Phrenology Main article: Phrenology The first roots of cognitive neuroscience lie in phrenology, which was a pseudoscientific theory that claimed that behavior could be determined by the shape of the scalp. In the early 19th century, Franz Joseph Gall and J. G. Spurzheim believed that the human brain was localized into approximately 35 different sections. In his book, The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, Gall claimed that a larger bump in one of these areas meant that that area of the brain was used more frequently by that person. This theory gained significant public attention, leading to the publication of phrenology journals and the creation of phrenometers, which measured the bumps on a human subject's head. Aggregate field Pierre Flourens, a French experimental psychologist, was one of many scientists that challenged the views of the phrenologists. Through his study of living rabbits and pigeons, he discovered that lesions to particular areas of the brain produced no discernible change in behavior. He proposed the theory that the brain is an aggregate field, meaning that different areas of the brain participated in behavior. Later localizationists Studies performed in Europe by scientists such as John Hughlings Jackson caused the localizationist view to re-emerge as the primary view of behavior. Jackson studied patients with brain damage, particularly those with epilepsy. He discovered that the epileptic patients often made the same clonic and tonic movements of muscle during their seizures, leading Jackson to believe that they must be occurring in the same place every time. Jackson proposed a topographic map of the brain, which was critical to future understanding of the brain lobes. Broca's area and Wernicke's area. Broca's area and Wernicke's area. In 1861, French neurologist Paul Broca came across a man who was able to understand language but unable to speak. The man could only produce the sound tan. It was later discovered that the man had damage to an area of his left frontal lobe now known as Broca's area. Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist, found a similar patient, except that this patent could speak fluently but non-sensibly. The patient has been a victim of a stroke, and could not understand spoken or written language. This patient had a lesion in the area where the left parietal and temporal lobes meet, now known as Wernicke's area. These cases strongly supported the localizationists views, because a lesion caused a specific behavioral change in both of these patients. In 1870, German physicians Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch published their findings about the behavior of animals. Hitzig and Fritsch ran an electrical current through the cerebral cortex of a dog, causing the dog to produce characteristic movements based on where the current was applied. Since different areas produced different movements, the physicians concluded that behavior was rooted at the cellular level. German neuroanatomist Korbinian Brodmann used tissue staining techniques developed by Franz Nissl to see the different types of cells in the brain. Though this study, Brodmann concluded in 1909 that the human brain consisted of fifty-two distinct areas, now named Brodmann areas. Many of Brodmann's distinctions were very accurate, such as differentiating Brodmann area 17 from Brodmann area 18. The neuron doctrine Main article: Neuron doctrine In the early 20th century, Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Camillo Golgi began working on the structure of the neuron. Golgi developed a silver staining method that could entirely stain several cells in a particular area, leading him to believe that neurons were directly connected with each other in one cytoplasm. Cajal challenged this view after staining areas of the brain that had less myelin and discovering that neurons were discrete cells. Cajal also discovered that cells transmit electrical signals down the neuron in one direction only. Both Golgi and Cajal won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for this work on the neuron doctrine. Foundation of the science On September 11, 1956, a large-scale meeting of cognitivists took place at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. George A. Miller presented his The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two paper while Noam Chomsky and Newell Simon presented their findings on computer science. Ulric Neisser commented on many of the findings at this meeting in his 1967 book Cognitive Psychology. The term psychology had been waning in the 1950s and 1960s, causing the field to be referred to as cognitive science. Behavioralists such as Miller began to focus on the representation of language rather than general behavior. David Marr's proposal of the hierarchical representation of memory caused many psychologists to embrace the idea that mental skills required significant processing in the brain, including algorithms. Applied neurocognitive science technologies Military uses The military are interested in this technology for causing frequency disruption to brainwaves on the battlefield, and as a non-lethal weapon on civilians in an uban environment 1. Cognitive neuroscience topics attention change blindness consciousness decision-making learning memory mirror neurons mismatch negativity Cognitive neuroscience methods Psychophysics Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychophysiology Cognitive neuropsychology EEG MEG fMRI PET SPECT Single unit recording Related WikiBooks wikibooks:Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Wikibook on consciousness Cognitive Neuroscience chapter of the Neuroscience WikiBook See also Cognitive psychology Experimental psychology Cognitive psychophysiology Important publications in cognitive neuroscience Affective neuroscience Social neuroscience Combinatorial game theory Brodmann area Whole Brain Atlas Neuroimaging and Clinical Neuroanatomy by Hans-Joachim Kretschmann, Wolfgang Weinrich Relational Complexity Cognitive Complexity and Control References Churchland, P.S. Sejnowski, T.J. 1992. The Computational Brain, The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-03188-4. Code, C. 1996. Classic Cases: Ancient Modern Milestones in the Development of Neuropsychological Science. In: Code, C. et al Classic Cases in Neuropsychology. Gazzaniga, M. S., The Cognitive Neurosciences III, 2004, The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-07254-8 Gazzaniga, M. S., Ed. 1999. Conversations in the Cognitive Neurosciences, The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-57117-X. Miller, G. A. 1956. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97 Parkin, A.J. 1996. Explorations in Cognitive Neuropsychology, pp. 1-23. Sternberg, Eliezer J. Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Ward, Jamie 2006. The Student's Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84169-535-8. Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition By Roberto Cabeza, Alan Kingstone Principles of neural science By Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, Thomas M. Jessell The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory By Amanda Parker, Edward L. Wilding, Timothy J. Bussey Neuronal Theories of the Brain By Christof Koch, Joel L. Davis Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning By Keith James Holyoak, Robert G. Morrison Handbook of Mathematical Cognition By Jamie I. D. Campbell Cognitive Psychology By Michael W. Eysenck, Mark T. Keane Development of Intelligence By Mike Anderson Development of Mental Processing By Andreas Demetriou, et. al. Memory and Thinking By Robert H. Logie, K. J. Gilhooly Memory Capacity By Nelson Cowan Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Models of Working Memory By Akira Miyake, Priti Shah Memory and Thinking By Robert H. Logie, K. J. Gilhooly Variation in Working Memory By Andrew R. A. Conway, et. al. Memory Capacity By Nelson Cowan Cognition and Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Jean E. Pretz General Factor of Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Elena Grigorenko Neurological Basis of Learning, Development and Discovery By Anton E. Lawson Memory and Human Cognition By John T. E. Richardson Further reading European Journal of Neuroscience European Journal of Pharmacology Archives of Neurology Cerebral Cortex Neuroreport Neuron Trends in Neuroscience Neurological Sciences Neuroscience Neuroimage Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Brain Neurology Reviews Language and Social Psychology Brain Behavior and Evolution Neuroscience Letters Visual Neuroscience Vision Vision Research Brain Research Clinical Neuropsychology Experimental Neurology Human Evolution Current Opinion in Neurobiology Neuroscience Methods Neuroendocrinology Current Biology Clinical Neuroscience Research Clinical Neuroscience Medicine New England Journal of Medicine Developmental Brain Research Neurobiology Biology Developmental Biology Progress in Brain Research Neuroscience Research Experimental Neurology Anatomy and Embryology Genes and Development Human Neurobiology Neurophysiology Synapse Hippocampus Behavioral Neuroscience Behvaioral and Neural Biology Memory and Language British Journal of Pharmacology Neuropsychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Neurochemical Research Neural Computation Trends in Cognitive Science Current Opinion in Neurobiology Cognitive Brain Research Human Brain Mapping American Journal of Audiology Otology and Neurotology Hearing Research Clinical Neurophysiology Optical Society of America Neural Systems Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Auditory Research Perception Hearing Research Acoustical Society of America Psychological Review Experimental Psychology Visual Cognition Neurocomputing Trends in Cognitive Sciences Progress in Neurobiology Clinical Neuropharmacology External links There's Something about Zero What Is Cognitive Neuroscience?, Jamie Ward/Psychology Press CogNet, The Brain and Cognitive Sciences Community Online, MIT Cognitive Neuroscience Arena, Psychology Press Cognitive Neuroscience and Philosophy, CUJCS, Spring 2002 Whole Brain Atlas Top 100 Brain Structures v d e Psychology Portal · History · Psychologist Research Affective · Biological · Clinical · Cognitive · Cognitive neuroscience · Comparative · Critical · Cultural · Developmental · Evolutionary · Experimental · Individual differences · International · Liberation · Mathematical · Media · Medical · Neuropsychology · Performance · Personality · Physiological · Political · Positive · Psycholinguistics · Psychopathology · Psychophysics · Psychophysiology · Qualitative · Quantitative · Social · Theoretical Psi Applied Assessment · Clinical · Counseling · Educational · Forensic · Health · Industrial/organizational · Legal · Relationship counseling · School · Sport · Systems Orientations Analytical · Behaviorism · Cognitivism · Cognitive behavioral · Descriptive · Existential · Family systems · Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy · Feminist · Gestalt · Humanistic · Metapsychology · Narrative · Psychoanalysis · Psychodynamic · Transpersonal Seminal writers B.F. Skinner · Jean Piaget · Sigmund Freud · Otto Rank · Albert Bandura · Leon Festinger · Carl Rogers · Stanley Schachter · Neal E. Miller · Edward Thorndike · Abraham Maslow · Gordon Allport · Erik Erikson · Hans Eysenck · William James · David McClelland · Albert Ellis · Aaron T. Beck · Raymond Cattell · John B. Watson · Kurt Lewin · Donald O. Hebb · George A. Miller · Clark L. Hull · Jerome Kagan · Carl Jung · Ivan Pavlov Lists Topics · Counseling · Disciplines · Psychiatric drugs · Neurological disorders · Organizations · Psychologists · Psychotherapies · Publications · Research methods · Schools of theory · Timeline v d e Neuroscience Behavioral neurology · Cognitive neuroscience · Computational neuroscience · Molecular cellular cognition · Neural engineering · Neuroanatomy · Neurobiology · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroimaging · Neurolinguistics · Neurology · Neuromonitoring · Neuropharmacology · Neurophysiology · Neuropsychiatry · Neuropsychology · Neurosurgery · Systems neuroscience Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience Categories: Neuropsychology | Cognitive neuroscience | Cognitive scienceHidden categories: Articles with statements since September 2007 | All articles with statements Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages বাংলা Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia Español Français Nederlands 日本語 This page was last modified on 13 September 2008, at 11:17
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