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14-September-2008 12:50:29 - psychology The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. December 2007 Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. Cultural psychology is a field of psychology which assumes the idea that culture and mind are inseparable, thus there are no universal laws for how the mind works and that psychological theories grounded in one culture are likely to be limited in applicability when applied to a different culture. As Richard Shweder, one of the major proponents of the field, writes, Cultural psychology is the study of the way cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the human psyche, resulting less in psychic unity for humankind than in ethnic divergences in mind, self, and emotion 1991, p. 72. Cultural psychology has its roots in the 1960s and 1970s but became more prominent in the 1980s and 1990s. Some of the classic texts promoting cultural psychology include Shweder and Levine 1984, Triandis 1989, Bruner 1990 Shweder 1991, Markus and Kitayama 1991, Cole 1996, Nisbett Cohen 1996, Shore 1996, Fiske, et al. 1998, Nisbett, et al. 2001 and Nisbett 2003. Cultural psychologists generally use either ethnographic or experimental methods or a combination of both for collecting data. Cultural psychology is distinct from cross-cultural psychology in that the cross-cultural psychologists generally use culture as a means of testing the universality of psychological processes rather than determining how local cultural practices shape psychological processes. So whereas a cross-cultural psychologist might ask whether Piaget's stages of development are universal across a variety of cultures, a cultural psychologist would be interested in how the social practices of a particular set of cultures shape the development of cognitive processes in different ways. Cultural psychology research informs several fields within psychology, including social psychology, developmental psychology, and cognitive psychology. However, the relativist perspective of cultural psychology tends to clash with the universalist perspectives common in most fields in psychology. One of the most significant themes in recent years has been cultural differences between East Asians and North Americans in attention Masuda Nisbett, 2001 perception Kitayama, et al., 2003, cognition Nisbett, et al. 2001 and social psychological phenomena such as the self Markus Kitayama, 1991. Some Turiel have argued that this research is based on cultural stereotyping and faulty methodology Matsumoto. However, proponents of cultural psychology have countered these critics with evidence suggesting that such criticisms are based on an over-emphasis of cross-cultural comparisons of self-reported attitudes and values, which are relatively unstable and ultimately misleading Heine, Lehman, Peng, Greenholtz, 2002; Peng, Nisbett, Wong, 1997. Instead, relying on experimental and ethnographic evidence of deeper level mental processes, which are relatively more stable and more reflective of tacit cultural and historical influences, has been what cultural psychology is about Kitayama, 2002, Nisbett, 2003. According to Richard Swheder 1991, the main finding of a universalistic approach to cross-cultural psychology has been the repeated failure to replicate Western laboratory findings in non-Western settings. Therefore, a major goal of cultural psychology is to have divergent cultures inform basic psychological theories in order to refine and/or expand these theories so that they become more relevant to the predictions, descriptions, and explanations of ALL human behaviors, not just Western ones Markus Kitayama, 2003. Also sometimes called Cultural Psychology is what lists as Cultural-historical psychology. References Bruner, Jerome 1990. Acts of Meaning. Harvard University Press. Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Peng, K., Greenholtz, J. 2002. What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales: The reference-group problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 903-918. Fiske, A., Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Nisbett, R. E. 1998. The cultural matrix of social psychology. In D. Gilbert S. Fiske G. Lindzey Eds., The Handbook of Social Psychology 4th ed., pp. 915-981. San Francisco: McGraw-Hill. Kitayama, S. 2002. Culture and basic psychological processes--Toward a system view of culture: Comment on Oyserman et al. 2002. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 89-96. Kitayama, S., Duffy, S., Kawamura, T., Larsen, J. T. 2003. Perceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at new look. Psychological Science, 143, 201-206. Markus, H. R., Kitayama, S. 1991. Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. Markus, H.R., Kitayama, S. 2003. Culture, Self, and the Reality of the Social. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 277-283. Masuda, T., Nisbett, R. A. 2001. Attending holistically versus analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 815, 922-934. Nisbett, R.E. 2003. The Geography of Thought. New York: Free Press. Nisbett, R.E., Cohen, D. 1996. Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Denver, CO: Westview Press. Nisbett, R.E., Peng, K., Choi, I., Norenzayan, A. 2001. Culture and systems of thought: Holistic vs. analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108, 291-310. Peng, K., Nisbett, R. E., Wong, N. 1997. Validity problems of cross-cultural value comparison and possible solutions. Psychological Methods, 2, 329-341. Shore, B. 1996. Culture in mind: Cognition, culture and the problem of meaning. New York: Oxford University Press... Shweder, R.A., Levine, R.A. Eds., 1984. Culture theory: Essays on mind, self, and emotion. New York: Cambridge University Press. Shweder, Richard 1991. Thinking Through Cultures. Harvard University Press. Triandis, H. C. 1989. The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506-520. Further reading Kitayama, Shinobu, Cohen, Dov 2007. Handbook of Cultural Psychology. 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Skinner · Jean Piaget · Sigmund Freud · Otto Rank · Albert Bandura · Leon Festinger · Carl Rogers · Stanley Schachter · Neal E. Miller · Edward Thorndike · Abraham Maslow · Gordon Allport · Erik Erikson · Hans Eysenck · William James · David McClelland · Albert Ellis · Aaron T. Beck · Raymond Cattell · John B. Watson · Kurt Lewin · Donald O. Hebb · George A. Miller · Clark L. 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