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14-September-2008 18:38:50 - ASCII For other uses, see ASCII disambiguation. The 95 graphic ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126 decimal The 95 graphic ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126 decimal American Standard Code for Information Interchange ASCII, pronounced /ˈæs ki/1 is a character encoding based on the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most modern character encodings-which support many more characters than did the original-have a historical basis in ASCII. Historically, ASCII developed from telegraphic codes and its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on ASCII formally began October 6, 1960 with the first meeting of the ASA X3.2 subcommittee. The first ion of the standard was published in 1963,23 a major revision in 1967,4 and the most recent update in 19865. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting i.e., alphabetization of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. Some ASCII features, including the ESCape sequence,6 were due to Robert Bemer. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing, mostly obsolete control characters that affect how text is processed; 94 are printable characters excluding the space. The ASCII character encoding7-or a compatible extension-is used on nearly all common computers, especially personal computers and workstations. Contents 1 History 2 ASCII control characters 3 ASCII printable characters 4 Aliases 5 Variants 5.1 Incompatibility vs interoperability 5.2 Unicode 6 Order 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links History US ASCII 1967 Code Chart was structured with two columns of control characters, a column with special characters, a column with numbers, and four columns of letters US ASCII 1967 Code Chart was structured with two columns of control characters, a column with special characters, a column with numbers, and four columns of letters The American Standard Code for Information Interchange ASCII was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association, called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 later X3L2 subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute or USASI8 and ultimately the American National Standards Institute. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols i.e. graphemes and control characters. This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. The encodings in use before ASCII included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique standard, Fieldata and early EBCDIC, more than 64 codes were required. The committee debated the possibility of a shift key function like the Baudot code, which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by six bits. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. This allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission; an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.9 The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary coded decimal. However this would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, this also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired.10 Machines with octets as the native data type that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.11 The code itself was structured so that most control codes were together, and all graphic codes were together. The first two columns 32 positions were reserved for control characters.12 The space character had to come before graphics to make sorting algorithms easy, so it became position 32.13 The committee decided it was important to support the upper case 64-character alphabets, and chose to structure ASCII so it could easily be reduced to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes.14 Lower case letters were therefore not interleaved with upper case. To keep options for lower case letters and other graphics open, the special and numeric codes were placed before the letters, and the letter 'A' was placed in position 65 to match the draft of the corresponding British standard.15 The digits 0-9 were placed so they correspond to values in binary prefixed with 0011, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward. Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters. Thus #, $ and % were placed to correspond to 3, 4, and 5 in the adjacent column. The parentheses could not correspond to 9 and 0, however, because the place corresponding to 0 was taken by the space character. Since many European typewriters placed the parentheses with 8 and 9, these corresponding positions were chosen for the parentheses. The @ symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented À in France, so the @ was placed in position 64 next to the letter A.16 The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message SOM, end of address EOA, end of message EOM, end of transmission EOT, who are you? WRU, are you? RU, a reserved device control DC0, synchronous idle SYNC, and acknowledge ACK. These were positioned to maximize the Hamming distance between their bit patterns.17 With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code.18 It now seems obvious that these positions should have been assigned to the lower case alphabet, but there was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters instead.19 The indecision did not last long: in May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lower case characters to columns 6 and 7,20 and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted in October to incorporate the change into its draft standard.21 The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May, 1963 meeting.22 Locating the lowercase letters in columns 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers. The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters the curly bracket and vertical line characters,23 renaming some control characters SOM became start of header SOH and moving or removing others RU was removed.24 ASCII was subsequently updated as USASI X3.4-1967, then USASI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986 the first two are ocassionaly retronamed ANSI X3.4-1967, and ANSI X3.4-1968. The X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted least significant bit first, and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some forms of punched card formats. ASCII itself first entered commercial use in 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone Telegraph's TWX Teletype Wide-area eXchange network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit Baudot code, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence.2 His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work-according to Bemer, so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the Bemer-Ross Code in Europe.25 On March 11, 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States federal government support ASCII, stating: I have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.26 Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO/IEC 646 that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling £. Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII since ASCII only suited the needs of the USA and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French. Other adapted encodings include ISCII India, VISCII Vietnam, and YUSCII Yugoslavia. Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is strictly defined only by ANSI standard. ASCII has been incorporated into the Unicode character set as the first 128 symbols, so the ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with ASCII, a significant advantage. Asteroid 3568 ASCII is named after the character encoding. ASCII control characters Main article: Control character ASCII reserves the first 32 codes numbers 0-31 decimal for control characters: codes originally intended not to carry printable information, but rather to control devices such as printers that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the line feed function which causes a printer to advance its paper, and character 8 represents backspace. Control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space are called non-whitespace control characters.27 Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting. The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this left was sometimes intentional where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream and sometimes more accidental such as what delete means. Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the ASR-33 Teletype series, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage up through the 1980s, lower cost and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype 33 machine assignments for codes 17 Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON, 19 Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF, and 127 DELete became de-facto standards. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore, a noncompliant use of code 15 Control-O, Shift In interpreted as delete previous character was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually faded out. The use of Control-S XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off as a handshaking signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow, and Control-Q XON, transmit on to resume sending, persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. Code 127 is officially named delete but the Teletype label was rubout. Since the original standard gave no detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning, and the intent of the standard, was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL all zeroes. This was specifically useful for paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it. Tapes designed to be hand ed could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs blank tape so that a block of characters could be rubbed out and then replacements put into the empty space. As video terminals began to replace printing ones, the value of the rubout character was lost. DEC systems, for example, interpreted Delete to mean remove the character before the cursor, and this interpretation also became common in Unix systems. Most other systems used Backspace for that meaning and used Delete as it was used on paper tape, to mean remove the character after the cursor. That latter interpretation is the most common today. Many more of the control codes have taken on meanings quite different from their original ones. The escape character code 27, for example, was originally intended to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of escape encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been coopted and has eventually drifted. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, usually in the form of an ANSI escape code. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out of band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text ors. The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring plain text files between systems. The clearest example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. On printing terminals there is no question that you terminate a line of text with both Carriage Return and Linefeed. The first returns the printing carriage to the beginning of the line and the second advances to the next line without moving the carriage. However, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduced unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters, plain text files on Unix and Amiga systems use line feeds alone to separate lines. Similarly, older Macintosh systems, among others, use only carriage returns in plain text files. Various DEC operating systems used both characters to mark the end of a line, perhaps for compatibility with teletypes, and this de facto standard was copied in the CP/M operating system and then in MS-DOS and eventually Microsoft Windows. Transmission of text over the Internet, for protocols as E-mail and the World Wide Web, uses both characters. The DEC operating systems, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z SUB to mark the end of the actual text in the file also done for CP/M compatibility in some cases in MS-DOS, though MS-DOS has always recorded exact file-lengths. Text strings ending with the null character are known as ASCIZ or C strings. Binary Oct Dec Hex Abbr PRt 1 CSt 2 CECt 3 Description 000 0000 000 0 00 NUL â?€ ^@ \0 Null character 000 0001 001 1 01 SOH â?? ^A Start of Header 000 0010 002 2 02 STX â?‚ ^B Start of Text 000 0011 003 3 03 ETX â?ƒ ^C End of Text 000 0100 004 4 04 EOT â?„ ^D End of Transmission 000 0101 005 5 05 ENQ â?… ^E Enquiry 000 0110 006 6 06 ACK â?† ^F Acknowledgment 000 0111 007 7 07 BEL â?‡ ^G \a Bell 000 1000 010 8 08 BS â?ˆ ^H \b Backspacet 4t 5 000 1001 011 9 09 HT â?‰ ^I \t Horizontal Tab 000 1010 012 10 0A LF â?Š ^J \n Line feed 000 1011 013 11 0B VT â?‹ ^K \v Vertical Tab 000 1100 014 12 0C FF â?Œ ^L \f Form feed 000 1101 015 13 0D CR â?? ^M \r Carriage returnt 6 000 1110 016 14 0E SO â?Ž ^N Shift Out 000 1111 017 15 0F SI â?? ^O Shift In 001 0000 020 16 10 DLE â?? ^P Data Link Escape 001 0001 021 17 11 DC1 â?‘ ^Q Device Control 1 oft. XON 001 0010 022 18 12 DC2 â?’ ^R Device Control 2 001 0011 023 19 13 DC3 â?“ ^S Device Control 3 oft. XOFF 001 0100 024 20 14 DC4 â?” ^T Device Control 4 001 0101 025 21 15 NAK â?• ^U Negative Acknowledgement 001 0110 026 22 16 SYN â?– ^V Synchronous Idle 001 0111 027 23 17 ETB â?— ^W End of Trans. Block 001 1000 030 24 18 CAN â?˜ ^X Cancel 001 1001 031 25 19 EM â?™ ^Y End of Medium 001 1010 032 26 1A SUB â?š ^Z Substitute 001 1011 033 27 1B ESC â?› ^ \et 7 Escapet 8 001 1100 034 28 1C FS â?œ ^\ File Separator 001 1101 035 29 1D GS â?? ^ Group Separator 001 1110 036 30 1E RS â?ž ^^ Record Separator 001 1111 037 31 1F US â?Ÿ ^_ Unit Separator 111 1111 177 127 7F DEL â?¡ ^? Deletet 9t 5 ^ Printable Representation, the Unicode characters from the area U+2400 to U+2421 reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function. Some browsers may not display these properly. ^ Control key Sequence/caret notation, the traditional key sequences for inputting control characters. The caret ^ represents the Control or Ctrl key that must be held down while pressing the second key in the sequence. The caret-key representation is also used by some software to represent control characters. ^ Character Escape Codes in C programming language and many other languages influenced by it, such as Java and Perl though not all implementations necessarily support all escape codes. ^ The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the Backspace, Bksp, or â†? key on some systems. ^ a b The ambiguity surrounding Backspace comes from mismatches between the intent of the human or software transmitting the Backspace and the interpretation by the software receiving it. If the transmitter expects Backspace to erase the previous character and the receiver expects Delete to be used to erase the previous character, many receivers will echo the Backspace as ^H, just as they would echo any other uninterpreted control character. A similar mismatch in the other direction may yield Delete displayed as ^?. ^ The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the Return, Ret, Enter, or ↵ key on most systems. ^ The '\e' escape sequence is not part of ISO C and many other language specifications. However, it is understood by several compilers. ^ The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the Escape or Esc key on some systems. ^ The Delete character can also be entered by pressing the Delete or Del key. It can also be entered by pressing the Backspace, Bksp, or â†? key on some systems. ASCII printable characters Code 32, the space character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the space-bar of a keyboard. The space character is considered an invisible graphic rather than a control character.28 Codes 33 to 126, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. Seven-bit ASCII provided seven national characters and, if the combined hardware and software permit, can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters: in such a scenario a backspace can precede a grave accent which the American and British standards, but only those standards, also call opening single quotation mark, a backtick, or a breath mark inverted vel. Binary Oct Dec Hex Glyph 010 0000 040 32 20 â? 010 0001 041 33 21 ! 010 0010 042 34 22 010 0011 043 35 23 # 010 0100 044 36 24 $ 010 0101 045 37 25 % 010 0110 046 38 26 010 0111 047 39 27 ' 010 1000 050 40 28 010 1001 051 41 29 010 1010 052 42 2A 010 1011 053 43 2B + 010 1100 054 44 2C , 010 1101 055 45 2D - 010 1110 056 46 2E . 010 1111 057 47 2F / 011 0000 060 48 30 0 011 0001 061 49 31 1 011 0010 062 50 32 2 011 0011 063 51 33 3 011 0100 064 52 34 4 011 0101 065 53 35 5 011 0110 066 54 36 6 011 0111 067 55 37 7 011 1000 070 56 38 8 011 1001 071 57 39 9 011 1010 072 58 3A : 011 1011 073 59 3B ; 011 1100 074 60 3C 011 1101 075 61 3D = 011 1110 076 62 3E 011 1111 077 63 3F ? Binary Oct Dec Hex Glyph 100 0000 100 64 40 @ 100 0001 101 65 41 A 100 0010 102 66 42 B 100 0011 103 67 43 C 100 0100 104 68 44 D 100 0101 105 69 45 E 100 0110 106 70 46 F 100 0111 107 71 47 G 100 1000 110 72 48 H 100 1001 111 73 49 I 100 1010 112 74 4A J 100 1011 113 75 4B K 100 1100 114 76 4C L 100 1101 115 77 4D M 100 1110 116 78 4E N 100 1111 117 79 4F O 101 0000 120 80 50 P 101 0001 121 81 51 Q 101 0010 122 82 52 R 101 0011 123 83 53 S 101 0100 124 84 54 T 101 0101 125 85 55 U 101 0110 126 86 56 V 101 0111 127 87 57 W 101 1000 130 88 58 X 101 1001 131 89 59 Y 101 1010 132 90 5A Z 101 1011 133 91 5B 101 1100 134 92 5C \ 101 1101 135 93 5D 101 1110 136 94 5E ^ 101 1111 137 95 5F _ Binary Oct Dec Hex Glyph 110 0000 140 96 60 ` 110 0001 141 97 61 a 110 0010 142 98 62 b 110 0011 143 99 63 c 110 0100 144 100 64 d 110 0101 145 101 65 e 110 0110 146 102 66 f 110 0111 147 103 67 g 110 1000 150 104 68 h 110 1001 151 105 69 i 110 1010 152 106 6A j 110 1011 153 107 6B k 110 1100 154 108 6C l 110 1101 155 109 6D m 110 1110 156 110 6E n 110 1111 157 111 6F o 111 0000 160 112 70 p 111 0001 161 113 71 q 111 0010 162 114 72 r 111 0011 163 115 73 s 111 0100 164 116 74 t 111 0101 165 117 75 u 111 0110 166 118 76 v 111 0111 167 119 77 w 111 1000 170 120 78 x 111 1001 171 121 79 y 111 1010 172 122 7A z 111 1011 173 123 7B 111 1100 174 124 7C | 111 1101 175 125 7D 111 1110 176 126 7E ~ Aliases A June 1992 RFC29 and the IANA registry of character sets30 recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet: ANSI_X3.4-1968 canonical name iso-ir-6 ANSI_X3.4-1986 ISO_646.irv:1991 ASCII with ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 variants ISO646-US US-ASCII preferred MIME name30 us IBM367 cp367 csASCII Of these, only the aliases US-ASCII and ASCII have achieved widespread use. One often finds them in the optional charset parameter in the Content-Type header of some MIME messages, in the equivalent meta element of some HTML documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prologue of some XML documents. Variants As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII in order to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as ASCII extensions, although some misuse that term to cover all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. The PETSCII Code used by Commodore International for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963 instead of the far more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the ZX Spectrum computer. Atari and Galaksija computers also used ASCII variants. Incompatibility vs interoperability From early in its development,31 ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard, ultimately published as ISO/IEC 646 1972, which would share most characters in common but assign other locally-useful characters to several code points reserved for national use. However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation in 196732 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to appear to be de facto standards for the world, leading to confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points. ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, was a 7-bit character set. It made no additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but these were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and therefore which character a code represented, and text-processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway. Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to national use code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc., programmer had to get used to reading and writing ä aÄiÃœ='Ön'; ü or, using trigraphs, ?? a?? i ??='??/n'; ?? instead of ai='\n'; Eventually, as 8-, 16-, and 32-bit computers began to replace 18- and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit, relatives of ASCII, with the 128 additional characters providing room to avoid most of the ambiguity that had been necessary in 7-bit codes. For example, IBM developed 8-bit code pages, such as code page 437, which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set DEC-MCS for use in the popular VT220 terminal. Eight-bit standards such as ISO/IEC 8859 derived from the DEC-MCS and Mac OS Roman developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 i.e., 7-bit characters. This enabled representation of characters used in a broader range of languages. Because there were several competing 8-bit code standards, they continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations. Still, ISO-8859-1 Latin 1, its variant Windows-1252 often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1, and the original 7-bit ASCII remain the most common character encodings in use today. Unicode Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set UCS have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification using natural numbers called code points and encoding to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32. To permit backward compatibility, the 128 ASCII and 256 ISO-8859-1 Latin 1 characters are assigned Unicode/UCS code points that are the same as their codes in the earlier standards. Therefore, ASCII can be considered a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode/UCS, and, conversely, the UTF-8 encoding forms are binary-compatible with ASCII for code points below 128, meaning every properly encoded ASCII file is also a valid UTF-8 file. The other encoding forms resemble ASCII in how they represent the first 128 characters of Unicode, but use 16 or 32 bits per character, so they require conversion for compatibility. Order Collation of data is sometimes done in ASCII-code order rather than standard alphabetical order. The main deviations are: capitals come before lowercase letters, i.e. Z before a characters in extended character sets such as é come after z The slang expression ASCIIbetical is sometimes used for this order.33 In programming, alphanumeric sorting means to sort by numeric value, without regard of any character set. An alphanumerically sorted array of bytes will appear ASCIIbetically when viewed in an ASCII-compatible character set. A refined version of this order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values. References ^ Audio pronunciation for ASCII. Merriam Webster. Accessed 2008-04-14. ^ a b Mary Brandel July 6, 1999. 1963: The Debut of ASCII: CNN. Accessed 2008-04-14. ^ American Standard Code for Information Interchange, ASA X3.4-1963, American Standards Association, June 17, 1963 ^ USA Standard Code for Information Interchange, USAS X3.4-1967, United States of America Standards Institute, July 7, 1967 ^ American National Standard for Information Systems -- Coded Character Sets -- 7-Bit American National Standard Code for Information Interchange 7-Bit ASCII, ANSI X3.4-1986, American National Standards Institute, Inc., March 26, 1986 ^ R.W. Bemer, A Proposal for Character Code Compatibility, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 3. No. 2, February, 1960, pp. 71-72 ^ International Organization for Standardization December 1, 1975. The set of control characters for ISO 646. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry. Alternate U.S. version: 1. Accessed 2008-04-14. ^ Mackenzie, p.211. ^ Decision 4. Mackenzie, p.215. ^ Decision 5. Mackenzie, p.217. ^ Sawyer A. Sawyer and Steven George Krantz January 1, 1995. A Tex Primer for Scientists. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-7159-7. p.13. ^ Decision 8,9. Mackenzie, p.220. ^ Decision 10. Mackenzie, p.237. ^ Decision 14. Mackenzie, p.228. ^ Decision 18. Mackenzie, p.238. ^ Mackenzie, p.243. ^ Mackenzie, p.243-245. ^ Mackenzie, p.66, 245. ^ Mackenzie, p.435. ^ Brief Report: Meeting of CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet, May 13-15, 1963. ^ Report of ISO/TC/97/SC 2 - Meeting of October 29-31, 1963. ^ Report on Task Group X3.2.4, June 11, 1963, Pentagon Building, Washington, DC. ^ Report of Meeting No. 8, Task Group X3.2.4, December 17 and 18, 1963 ^ Mackenzie, p.247-8. ^ Bob Bemer n.d.. Bemer meets Europe. Trailing-edge.com. Accessed 2008-04-14. Employed at IBM at that time ^ Lyndon B. Johnson March 11, 1968. Memorandum Approving the Adoption by the Federal Government of a Standard Code for Information Interchange. The American Presidency Project. Accessed 2008-04-14. ^ RFC 2822 April 2001. NO-WS-CTL. ^ Mackenzie, p.223. ^ RFC 1345 June 1992. ^ a b Internet Assigned Numbers Authority May 14, 2007. Character Sets. Accessed 2008-04-14. ^ Specific Criteria, attachment to memo from R. W. Reach, X3-2 Meeting -- September 14 and 15, September 18, 1961 ^ R. Maréchal, ISO/TC 97 - Computers and Information Processing: Acceptance of Draft ISO Recommendation No. 1052, December 22, 1967 ^ ASCIIbetical definition. PC Magazine. Accessed 2008-04-14. Further reading G.S. Robinson C. Cargill October 1996. History and impact of computer standards, Computer Vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 79-85. American National Standards Institute, et al 1977. American National Standard Code for Information Interchange. The Institute. Charles E. Mackenzie 1980. Coded Character Sets, History and Development. Addison-Wesley. External links A history of ASCII, its roots and predecessors by Tom Jennings October 29, 2004 accessed 2005-12-17 The ASCII subset of Unicode The Evolution of Character Codes, 1874-1968 v d e Character encodings Morse code Baudot code Fieldata EBCDIC ASCII Code page Unicode ASCII variants ATASCII Galaksija ISO/IEC 646 PETSCII YUSCII ZX Spectrum character set Extended ASCII ISCII ISO/IEC 8859 ISO/IEC 8859-1 Mac OS Roman UTF-8 VISCII Windows code pages ASCII-related ASCII art ASCII Ribbon Campaign Bob Bemer Braille ASCII Control characters Unicode Universal Character Set UTF-8 UTF-16 UTF-32 Han unification GB 18030 Unicode-related UTF-7 UTF-EBCDIC UTF-9 and UTF-18 TRON Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/ASCII Categories: ASCII | Acronyms Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages Alemannisch العربية Asturianu বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Bosanski БългарÑ?ки Català Česky Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Ù?ارسی Français Gaeilge Galego í•œêµì–´ Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Kurdî / كوردی LatvieÅ¡u Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ ‪Norsk nynorsk‬ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Ripoarisch Română РуÑ?Ñ?кий Scots Shqip SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Suomi Svenska Taqbaylit ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька اردو ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 11 September 2008, at 23:13
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