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14-September-2008 18:38:41 - Botany Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort Example of a cross section of a stem Example of a cross section of a stem 1 Botany, plant sciences, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of biology and is the scientific study of plant life and development. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study plants, algae, and fungi including: structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and chemical properties and evolutionary relationships between the different groups. Botany, the study of plants, began with tribal efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms. Contents 1 Scope and importance of botany 1.1 Human nutrition 1.2 Fundamental life processes 1.3 Medicine and materials 1.4 Environmental changes 2 Etymology 3 History 3.1 Early botany 3.2 Medieval botany 3.3 Early modern botany 3.4 Modern botany 4 Subdisciplines of Botany 5 Notable Botanists 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Popular science style books on Botany 8.2 Academic and Scientific books on Botany 9 External links 9.1 Flora and other plant catalogs or databases Scope and importance of botany Hibiscus Hibiscus As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification taxonomy, structure anatomy and morphology, or function physiology of plant life. Historically all living things were grouped as animals or plants,2 and botany covered all organisms not considered animals. Some organisms once included in the field of botany are no longer considered to belong to the plant kingdom - these include fungi studied in mycology, lichens lichenology, bacteria bacteriology, viruses virology and single-celled algae, which are now grouped as part of the Protista. However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi, lichens, bacteria and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses. The study of plants is vital because they are a fundamental part of life on Earth, which generates the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow humans and other higher life forms to exist. Through photosynthesis, plants also absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that in large amounts can affect global climate, they prevent soil erosion and impact the water cycle. Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record. It is believed that early in the earth's history, the evolution of photosynthetic plants altered the global atmosphere of the earth, changing the ancient atmosphere by oxidation. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to: Produce food to feed an expanding population Understand fundamental life processes Produce medicine and materials to treat diseases and other ailments Understand environmental changes more clearly Human nutrition Nearly all the food we eat comes directly and indirectly from plants like this American long grain rice. Nearly all the food we eat comes directly and indirectly from plants like this American long grain rice. Virtually all foods eaten come from plants, either directly from staple foods and other fruit and vegetables, or indirectly through livestock or other animals, which rely on plants for their nutrition. Plants are the fundamental base of nearly all food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere and convert them into a form that can be consumed and utilized by animals; this is what ecologists call the first trophic level. Botanists also study how plants produce food we can eat and how to increase yields and therefore their work is important in mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations, for example through plant breeding. Botanists also study weeds, plants which are considered to be a nuisance in a particular location. Weeds are a considerable problem in agriculture, and botany provides some of the basic science used to understand how to minimize 'weed' impact in agriculture and native ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people. Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of modern genetics from his studies of plants. Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of modern genetics from his studies of plants. Fundamental life processes Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes like cell division and protein synthesis for example can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by Gregor Mendel, who was studying the way pea shape is inherited. What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, Barbara McClintock discovered 'jumping genes' by studying maize. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes. Medicine and materials Many medicinal and recreational drugs, like tetrahydrocannabinol, caffeine, and nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products; for example aspirin is based on the pain killer salicylic acid which originally came from the bark of willow trees.3 There may be many novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular stimulants like coffee, chocolate, tobacco, and tea also come from plants. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermenting plants such as barley beer, rice saki and grapes wine. Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as cotton, wood, paper, linen, vegetable oils, some types of rope, and rubber. The production of silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the mulberry plant. Sugarcane, rapeseed, soy and other plants with a highly-fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of biofuels, which are important alternatives to fossil fuels, see biodiesel. Environmental changes Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways. Understanding habitat destruction and species extinction is dependent on an accurate and complete catalog of plant systematics and taxonomy. Plant responses to ultraviolet radiation can help us monitor problems like the ozone depletion. Analyzing pollen deposited by plants thousands or millions of years ago can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of climate change research. Recording and analyzing the timing of plant life cycles are important parts of phenology used in climate-change research. Lichens, which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as pollution indicators. In many different ways, plants can act a little like the 'miners canary', an early warning system alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy gardening, horticultural and culinary uses of plants every day. Etymology From Greek βοτάνη = pasture, grass, fodder, perhaps via the idea of a livestock keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to eat. History The traditional tools of a botanist. The traditional tools of a botanist. Early botany Ancient India Early examples of plant taxonomy occur in the Rigveda, that divides plants into Vá¹›ska tree, Osadhi herbs useful to humans and Virudha creepers. which are further subdivided. The Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes, Visakha spreading branches, Manjari leaves with long clusters, Sthambini bushy plants, Prastanavati which expands; Ekasá¹›nga those with monopodial growth, Pratanavati creeping plants, Amsumati with many stalks, and Kandini plants with knotty joints. The Taittiriya Samhita and classifies the plant kingdom into vá¹›ksa, vana and druma trees, visakha shrubs with spreading branches, sasa herbs, amsumali a spreading or deliquescent plant, vratati climber, stambini bushy plant, pratanavati creeper, and alasala those spreading on the ground. Manusmriti proposed a classification of plants in eight major categories. Charaka SamhitÄ? and Sushruta Samhita and the Vaisesikas also present an elaborate taxonomy. Parashara, the author of Vá¹›ksayurveda the science of life of trees, classifies plants into Dvimatrka Dicotyledons and Ekamatrka Monocotyledons. These are further classified into Samiganiya Fabaceae, Puplikagalniya Rutaceae, Svastikaganiya Cruciferae, Tripuspaganiya Cucurbitaceae, Mallikaganiya Apocynaceae, and Kurcapuspaganiya Asteraceae.4 Important medieval Indian works of plant physiology include the Prthviniraparyam of Udayana, Nyayavindutika of Dharmottara, Saddarsana-samuccaya of Gunaratna, and Upaskara of Sankaramisra.4 Ancient China In ancient China, the recorded listing of different plants and herb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes spans back to at least the Warring States 481 BC-221 BC. Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics. There was the Han Dynasty 202 BC-220 AD written work of the Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Zhongjing of the 2nd century. There was also the 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo, who compiled treatises on herbal medicine and included the use of mineralogy. Greco-Roman world Among the earliest of botanical works in Europe, written around 300 B.C., are two large treatises by Theophrastus: On the History of Plants Historia Plantarum and On the Causes of Plants. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer Dioscorides provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants. Medieval botany Main article: Muslim Agricultural Revolution The Kurdish biologist Al-Dinawari 828-896 is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his Book of Plants, in which he described at least 637 plants and discussed plant evolution from its birth to its death, describing the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit.5 In the early 13th century, the Andalusian-Arabian biologist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati developed an early scientific method for botany, introducing empirical and experimental techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica, and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations.6 His student Ibn al-Baitar d. 1248 wrote a pharmaceutical encyclopedia describing 1,400 plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which were his own original discoveries. A Latin translation of his work was useful to European biologists and pharmacists in the 18th and 19th centuries.7 Early modern botany In 1665, using an early microscope, Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue. The German Leonhart Fuchs, the Swiss Conrad von Gesner, and the British authors Nicholas Culpeper and John Gerard published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants. During the 18th century systems of classification became deliberately artificial and served only for the purpose of identification. These classifications are comparable to diagnostic keys, where taxa are artificially grouped in pairs by few, easily recognisable characters. The sequence of the taxa in keys is often totally unrelated to their natural or phyletic groupings. In the 18th century an increasing number of new plants had arrived in Europe, from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide, and a larger amount of plants became available for study. In 1754 Carl von Linné Carl Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes. One, the Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns.8 The increased knowledge on anatomy, morphology and life cycles, lead to the realization that there were more natural affinities between plants, than the sexual system of Linnaeus indicated. Adanson 1763, Jussieu 1789, and Candolle 1819 all proposed various alternative natural systems that were widely followed. The ideas of natural selection as a mechanism for evolution required adaptations to the Candollean system, which started the studies on evolutionary relationships and phylogenetic classifications of plants. Modern botany A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying model plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. This weedy species in the mustard family was one of the first plants to have its genome sequenced. The sequencing of the rice Oryza sativa genome and a large international research community have made rice the de facto cereal/grass/monocot model. Another grass species, Brachypodium distachyon is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially-important staple foods like wheat, maize, barley, rye, pearl millet and soybean are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two haploid n sets of chromosomes, a condition known as polyploidy, common in the plant kingdom. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii a single-celled, green alga is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology. In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, major questions such as which families represent the earliest branches in the genealogy of angiosperms are now understood. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants. Subdisciplines of Botany Agronomy-Application of plant science to crop production Bryology-Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts Economic botany-The place of plants in economics Ethnobotany-Relationship between humans and plants Forestry-Forest management and related studies Horticulture-Cultivated plants Paleobotany-Fossil plants Palynology-Pollen and spores Phycology - Algae Phytochemistry-Plant secondary chemistry and chemical processes Phytopathology-Plant diseases Plant anatomy-Cell and tissue structure Plant ecology-Role of plants in the environment Plant genetics-Genetic inheritance in plants Plant morphology-Structure and life cycles Plant physiology-Life functions of plants Plant systematics-Classification and naming of plants Notable Botanists Ibn al-Baitar d. 1248, Andalusian-Arab scientist, botanist, pharmacist, physician, and author of one of the largest botanical encyclopedias. Al-Dinawari 828-896, Kurdish botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer, mathematician, and founder of Arabic botany. Luther Burbank 1849-1926, American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science. Joseph Dalton Hooker 1817-1911, English botanist and explorer. Second winner of Darwin Medal. Thomas Henry Huxley 1825-1895, English biologist, known as Darwin's Bulldog for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Third winner of Darwin Medal. Carl Linnaeus 1707-1778, Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. Gregor Johann Mendel 1822-1884, Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati c. 1200, Andalusian-Arab botanist and agricultural scientist, and a pioneer in experimental botany. Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519, Italian polymath; a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician and writer. AgustÃn Stahl 1842-1947, conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of ethnology, and zoology in the Caribbean region. See also Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769 Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769 History of plant systematics History of phycology Botanical garden and List of botanical gardens Dendrochronology List of domesticated plants Edible Flowers Flowers and List of flowers Forestry Herbs List of botanical journals List of botanists List of botanists by author abbreviation List of systems of plant taxonomy List of publications in biology Paleobotany Palynology Plant anatomy Seeds Plant physiology Plant community Plant sexuality Soil science Part of a series on Horticulture and Gardening Gardening Gardening Garden Botanical garden Arboretum Botany Plant Horticulture Horticulture Agriculture Urban agriculture City farm Organic farming Herb farm Hobby farm Intercropping Farm Customs Harvest festival Thanksgiving History of agriculture Plant protection Phytopathology Pesticide Weed control This box: view talk Trees Vegetation Weed Science References ^ Winterborne J, 2005. Hydroponics - Indoor Horticulture 1 ^ Chapman, Jasmin; Jones, Alan M.; Walsh, Ed; McDonald, Averil; Elizabeth Murphy, Jan; O'Brien, Pat. Science Web. Nelson Thornes Ltd, 56. ISBN 0-17-438746-6. ^ Mann, J. 1987. Secondary Metabolism, 2nd ed.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 186-187. ISBN 0-19-855529-6. ^ a b Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy ^ Fahd, Toufic, Botany and agriculture, pp. 815 , in Morelon, Régis Roshdi Rashed 1996, Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107 ^ Huff, Toby 2003, The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, p. 218, ISBN 0521529948 ^ Diane Boulanger 2002, The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology, OISE Papers, in STSE Education, Vol. 3. ^ Hoek, C.van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. 2005. Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0 521 30419 9 U.S. Geological Survey. National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany Further reading Popular science style books on Botany Attenborough, David The Private Life of Plants, ISBN 0-563-37023-8 Bellamy, D Bellamy on Botany, ISBN 0-563-10666-2 an accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects Capon, B: Botany for Gardeners ISBN 0-88192-655-8 Cohen, J. How many people can the earth support? W.W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0-393-31495-2 Halle, Francis. In praise of plants ISBN 0-88192-550-0. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants. King, J. Reaching for the sun: How plants work ISBN 0-521-58738-7. A fluent introduction to how plants work. Pakenham, T: Remarkable Trees of the World 2002 ISBN 0-297-84300-1 Pakenham, T: Meetings with Remarkable Trees 1996 ISBN 0-297-83255-7 Pollan, M The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World Bloomsbury ISBN 0-7475-6300-4 Account of the co-evolution of plants and humans Thomas, B.A.: The evolution of plants and flowers St Martin's Press 1981 ISBN 0-312-27271-5 Walker, D. Energy, Plants and Man ISBN 1-870232-05-4 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis Academic and Scientific books on Botany Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W Jones, R.L. 2000 Biochemistry molecular biology of plants. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0-943088-39-9 Crawford, R. M. M. 1989. Studies in plant survival. Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-01475-X Crawley, M. J. 1997. Plant ecology. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0-632-03639-7 Ennos, R and Sheffield, E Plant life, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-86542-737-2 Introduction to plant biodiversity Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L., Little, C.R. 2007. Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 Fitter, A Hay, R Environmental physiology of plants 3rd ion Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0-12-257766-3 Lambers, H., Chapin, F.S. III and Pons, T.L. 1998. Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-98326-0; 2nd compltely revised ion to appear in 2008. Lawlor, D.W. 2000 Photosynthesis BIOS ISBN 1-85996-157-6 Matthews, R. E. F. Fundamentals of plant virology Academic Press,1992. Mauseth, J.D.: Botany : an introduction to plant biology. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4, A first year undergraduate level textbook Morton, A.G. 1981. History of Botanical Science.Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 hardback ISBN 0-12-508382-3 paperback Raven, P.H, Evert R.H and Eichhorn, S.E: Biology of Plants, Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-041-6, A first year undergraduate level textbook Richards, P. W. 1996. The tropical rainforest. 2nd ed. C.U.P. Pbk ISBN 0-521-42194-2 £32.50 Ridge, I. 2002 Plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925548-2 Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: Plant physiology Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0-534-15162-0 Stace, C. A. A new flora of the British Isles. 2nd ed. C.U.P.,1997. ISBN 0-521-58935-5 Strange, R. L. Introduction to plant pathology. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0-470-84973-8 Taiz, L. Zeiger, E. 1998. Plant physiology. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-823-0 Walter, H. 1985. Vegetation of the earth. 3rd rev. ed. Springer. Willis, K 2002 The evolution of plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-850065-3 £22-99 External links Wikiversity At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Botany at: The Department of Botany Wikibooks Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Botany Biology portal Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation plant growth and the plant cell from Kimball's Biology Pages Botanical Society of America: What is Botany? Science and Plants for Schools Teaching Documents about Botany Teaching documents, lecture notes and tutorials online: an annotated link directory. American society of plant biologists APSB Why study Plants? Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge Botany Photo of the Day Anales del JardÃn Botánico de Madrid, Journal published by Real JardÃn Botánico, CSIC scientific articles in Spanish, English, and other languages Collectanea Botanica, Journal published by Institut Botà nic de Barcelona, CSIC scientific articles in Spanish, English, and other languages Flora and other plant catalogs or databases The Virtual Library of Botany High quality pictures of plants and information about them from Catholic University of Leuven Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 1790-1856 The Trees Of Great Britain and Ireland, by Henry John Elwes Augustine Henry, 1906-1913 Botanik-Datenbank ger. Plant Directory ger. USDA plant database The Linnean Society of London Native Plant Information Network v d e Botany Subdisciplines of botany Ethnobotany · Paleobotany · Plant anatomy · Plant ecology · Plant evo-devo · Plant morphology · Plant physiology Plants Evolutionary history of plants · Algae · Bryophyte · Pteridophyte · Gymnosperm · Angiosperm Plant parts Flower · Fruit · Leaf · Meristem · Root · Stem · Stoma · Vascular tissue · Wood Plant cells Cell wall · Chlorophyll · Chloroplast · Photosynthesis · Plant hormone · Plastid · Transpiration Plant life cycles Gametophyte · Plant sexuality · Pollen · Pollination · Seed · Spore · Sporophyte Plant taxonomy Botanical name · Botanical nomenclature · Herbarium · IAPT · ICBN · Species Plantarum Category · Portal v d e Major subfields of biology Anatomy · Astrobiology · Biochemistry · Bioinformatics · Biostatistics · Botany · Cell biology · Chronobiology · Developmental biology · Ecology · Epidemiology · Evolutionary biology · Genetics · Genomics · Human biology · Immunology · Marine biology · Microbiology · Molecular biology · Neuroscience · Nutrition · Origin of life · Paleontology · Parasitology · Pathology · Physiology · Systems biology · Taxonomy · Zoology Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Botany Categories: Botany Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية Aragonés Arpetan Asturianu AzÉ™rbaycan Basa Banyumasan БеларуÑ?каÑ? БеларуÑ?каÑ? тарашкевіца Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg БългарÑ?ки Català Česky Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Þ‹Þ¨ÞˆÞ¬Þ€Þ¨Þ„Þ¦Þ?Þ° Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara Ù?ارسی Français Furlan Galego í•œêµì–´ हिनà¥?दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Иронау Ã?slenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kapampangan ქáƒ?რთული Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Ladino Latina LatvieÅ¡u Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lojban Magyar МакедонÑ?ки മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Myanmasa NÄ?huatl Nederlands 日本語 Norfuk / Pitkern ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ ‪Norsk nynorsk‬ Nouormand Novial Occitan پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi РуÑ?Ñ?кий संसà¥?कृत Scots Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / СрпÑ?кохрватÑ?ки Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழà¯? ไทย Tiếng Việt Тоҷикӣ Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька اردو Vèneto Volapük ייִדיש ŽemaitÄ—Å¡ka ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 10 September 2008, at 00:31
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