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14-September-2008 18:38:49 - European Union Redirected from EU EU redirects here. For other uses, see EU disambiguation. European Union Европей�?ки �?ъюз Bulgarian Evropská unie Czech Den Europæiske Union Danish Europese Unie Dutch Euroopa Liit Estonian Euroopan unioni Finnish Union européenne French Europäische Union German Ευ�?ωπαϊκή Ένωση Greek Európai Unió Hungarian An tAontas Eorpach Irish Unione Europea Italian Eiropas Savienība Latvian Europos Sąjunga Lithuanian L-Unjoni Ewropea Maltese Unia Europejska Polish União Europeia Portuguese Uniunea Europeană Romanian Európska únia Slovak Evropska unija Slovene Unión Europea Spanish Europeiska unionen Swedish Flag of the European Union Presidency insignia of the European Union Flag Presidency insignia Motto: United in diversity1 In varietate concordiaLatin Anthem: Ode an die Freude1 orchestral Location of the European Union Political centres Brussels Strasbourg Luxembourg Official languages 23 Bulgarian Czech Danish Dutch English Estonian Finnish French German Greek Hungarian Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian Maltese Polish Portuguese Romanian Slovak Slovenian Spanish Swedish Demonym European2 Member States 27 Flag of Austria Austria Flag of Belgium Belgium Flag of Bulgaria Bulgaria Flag of Cyprus Cyprus Flag of the Czech Republic Czech Republic Flag of Denmark Denmark Flag of Estonia Estonia Flag of Finland Finland Flag of France France Flag of Germany Germany Flag of Greece Greece Flag of Hungary Hungary Flag of Ireland Ireland Flag of Italy Italy Flag of Latvia Latvia Flag of Lithuania Lithuania Flag of Luxembourg Luxembourg Flag of Malta Malta Flag of the Netherlands Netherlands Flag of Poland Poland Flag of Portugal Portugal Flag of Romania Romania Flag of Slovakia Slovakia Flag of Slovenia Slovenia Flag of Spain Spain Flag of Sweden Sweden Flag of the United Kingdom United Kingdom Government Sui generis - Commission José Manuel BarrosoEPP - Parliament Hans-Gert PötteringEPP - Council France - European Council Nicolas SarkozyEPP Formation - Paris Treaty 18 April 1951 - Rome Treaty 25 March 1957 - Maastricht Treaty 7 February 1992 Area - Total 4,324,782 km² 1,669,807 sq mi - Water % 3.08 Population - estimate 499,021,8514 GDP PPP 2007 IMF estimate - Total $14.712 trillion - Per capita $28,213 GDP nominal 2007 IMF estimate - Total $16.830 trillion - Per capita $33,482 Currency Euro + 12 Euro € EUR de jure ---- British pound Bulgarian lev Czech koruna Danish krone Estonian kroon Hungarian forint Latvian lats Lithuanian litas Polish złoty Romanian leu Slovak koruna Swedish krona Time zone UTC+0 to +2 - Summer DST UTC+1 to +3 Internet TLD .eu The European Union EU is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Europe. It was established by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993 upon the foundations of the pre-existing European Economic Community. With almost 500 million citizens, the EU combined generates an estimated 30% share of the world's nominal gross domestic product US$16.8 trillion in 2007.3 The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws which apply in all member states, guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital.4 It maintains a common trade policy,5 agricultural and fisheries policies,6 and a regional development policy.7 Fifteen member states have adopted a common currency, the euro. It has developed a role in foreign policy, representing its members in the World Trade Organisation, at G8 summits and at the United Nations. Twenty-one EU countries are members of NATO. It has developed a role in justice and home affairs, including the abolition of passport control between many member states under the Schengen Agreement.8 The EU operates through a hybrid system of intergovernmentalism and supranationalism. In certain areas it depends upon agreement between the member states. However, it also has supranational bodies, able to make decisions without the agreement of all national governments. Important institutions and bodies of the EU include the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central Bank. EU citizens elect the Parliament every five years. The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community formed among six countries in 1951 and the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Since then the EU has grown in size through the accession of new member states and has increased its powers by the addition of new policy areas to its remit. Contents 1 History 1.1 Treaties 2 Member states 2.1 Geography 3 Governance 3.1 Institutions 3.2 Legal system 3.3 Fundamental rights 4 Foreign relations 4.1 Humanitarian aid 4.2 Military and defence 5 Justice and home affairs 6 Economy 6.1 Single market 6.2 Monetary union 6.3 Competition 6.4 Budget 7 Development 7.1 Agriculture 7.2 Energy 7.3 Infrastructure 7.4 Regional development 7.5 Environment 7.6 Education and research 8 Demographics 8.1 Languages 8.2 Religion 9 Culture 9.1 Sport 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links History Main article: History of the European Union Robert Schuman proposing the Coal and Steel Community in 1950 Robert Schuman proposing the Coal and Steel Community in 1950 After the end of the Second World War the political climate favoured the unification of Europe. It was seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism which had devastated the continent.9 One such attempt to unite Europeans was the European Coal and Steel Community which while having the modest aim of centralised control of the previously national coal and steel industries of the its member states was declared to be a first step in the federation of Europe.10 The founding members of the Community were Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands and West Germany.11 Two additional communities were created in 1957: the European Economic Community EEC establishing a customs union and the European Atomic Energy Community Euratom for cooperation in developing nuclear energy.11 In 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities, although more commonly just as the European Community EC.12 The 1957 Rome Treaty created the European Economic Community. The 1957 Rome Treaty created the European Economic Community. In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.13 Norway had negotiated to join at the same time but a referendum rejected membership and so it remained outside. In 1979 the first direct, democratic elections to the European Parliament were held.14 Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s.15 In 1985 the Schengen Agreement created largely open borders without passport controls between most member states.16 In 1986 the European flag began to be used by the EC and leaders signed the Single European Act. The Iron Curtain's fall enabled eastward enlargement. Berlin Wall The Iron Curtain's fall enabled eastward enlargement. Berlin Wall In 1990, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a newly united Germany.17 With enlargement toward eastern Europe on the agenda, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the European Union were agreed. The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force on 1 November 1993.18 and in 1995 Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the newly established EU. In 2002, euro notes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the Eurozone has increased to encompassing fifteen countries. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Malta, Cyprus, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary joined the Union.19 On 1 January 2007, Romania and Bulgaria became the EU's newest members and Slovenia adopted the euro.19 In December of that year European leaders signed the Lisbon Treaty which was intended to replace the earlier, failed European Constitution, which never came into force after being rejected by French and Dutch voters. However, uncertainty clouds the prospects of the latter treaty's coming into force as result of its rejection by Irish voters in June 2008. Treaties 1948 Brussels 1952 Paris 1958 Rome 1967 Brussels 1987 SEA 1993 Maastricht 1999 Amsterdam 2003 Nice 2009? Lisbon European Atomic Energy Community EURATOM European Coal and Steel Community ECSC European Union EU European Economic Community EEC → P I L L A R S → European Community EC ↑European Communities↑ Justice Home Affairs JHA Police Judicial co-operation in Criminal Matters PJCC European Political Cooperation EPC Common Foreign Security Policy CFSP Western European Union WEU Member states Main articles: European Union member state and Enlargement of the European Union Null The continental territories of the member states of the European Union European Communities pre-1993, animated in order of accession. The continental territories of the member states of the European Union European Communities pre-1993, animated in order of accession. Albania Austria Belarus Belgium Bos. Herz. Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Rep. Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg FYROM Malta→ Moldova Mont. Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switz- erland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom The European Union is composed of 27 independent sovereign countries which are known as member states: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.20 There are three official candidate countries, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Turkey; the western Balkan countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates.21 Kosovo has been granted similar status.22 To join the EU, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These require a stable democracy which respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the EU; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfillment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.23 The current framework does not specify how a country could exit the Union although Greenland withdrew in 1985, but the proposed Treaty of Lisbon contains a formal procedure for withdrawing. Four Western European countries that have chosen not to join the EU have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland has similar ties through bilateral treaties.2425 The relationships of the European microstates Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City include the use of the euro and other co-operation.26 Geography Main article: Geography of the European Union Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the EU. Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the EU. The territory of the EU consists of the combined territories of its 27 member states with some exceptions outlined below. The territory of the EU is not the same as that of Europe, as parts of the continent are outside the EU, such as Iceland, Switzerland, Norway, and European Russia. Some parts of member countries are not part of the EU, despite forming part of the European continent for example the Channel Islands and Faroe Islands. Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the EU such as Greenland, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles, and all the non-European territories associated with the United Kingdom. Some overseas territories are part of the EU even if they are not geographically part of Europe, such as the Azores, the Canary Islands, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Madeira, Martinique, Réunion, Saint Barthélemy, and Saint Martin.272829 The EU's climate is influenced by its 69,000 km coastline. Crete The EU's climate is influenced by its 69,000 km coastline. Crete The EU's member states cover a combined area of 4,422,773 square kilometres 1,707,642 sq mi.30 The total territory of the EU is larger than all but six countries and its highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4807 metres above sea level. The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 69,342 kilometres 43,087 mi long. The EU has the world's second longest coastline, after Canada. The combined member states share land borders with 21 non-member states for a total of 12,441 kilometres 7,730 mi, the fifth longest border in the world.313233 Including the overseas territories of member states, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic to tropical, rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. In practice, the majority of the population lives either in areas with a Merranean climate Southern Europe, a temperate maritime climate Western Europe, or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate Eastern Europe.34 Governance Main article: Politics of the European Union The presidency of the Council rotates semi-annually and is currently led by France. The presidency of the Council rotates semi-annually and is currently led by France. The EU is often described as being divided into three areas of responsibility, called pillars. The original European Community policies form the first pillar, while the second consists of Common Foreign and Security Policy. The third pillar originally consisted of Justice and Home Affairs, however owing to changes introduced by the Amsterdam and Nice treaties, it currently only consists of Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters. Broadly speaking, the second and third pillars can be described as the intergovernmental pillars because the supranational institutions of the Commission, Parliament and the Court of Justice play less of a role or none at all, while the lead is taken by the intergovernmental Council of Ministers and the European Council. Most activities of the EU come under the first, Community pillar. This is mostly economically oriented and the supranational institutions have more influence.35 Commission President José Manuel Barroso Commission President José Manuel Barroso The activities of the EU are regulated by a number of institutions and bodies. They carry out the tasks and policies set out for them in the treaties. The EU receives its political leadership from the European Council, which is composed of one representative per member state - either its head of state or head of government - plus the President of the Commission. Each member states' representative is assisted its Foreign Minister. The Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes which have arisen between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. The Council is headed by a rotating presidency, with every member state taking the helm of the EU for a period of six months during which that country's representatives chair meetings of the European Council and the Council of Ministers. The member state holding the presidency typically uses it to drive a particular policy agenda such as economic reform, reform of the EU itself, enlargement or furthering European integration. The Council usually meet four times a year at European Summits. The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent from the EU. Institutions Main article: Institutions of the European Union The Berlaymont in Brussels houses the European Commission. The Berlaymont in Brussels houses the European Commission. The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. It is intended to act solely in the interest of the EU as a whole, as opposed to the Council which consists of leaders of member states who reflect national interests. The commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It is currently composed of 27 commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state. The President of the Commission and all the other commissioners are nominated by the Council. Appointment of the Commission President, and also the Commission in its entirety, have to be confirmed by Parliament.36 The hemicycle of the Parliament's Louise Weiss building in Strasbourg The hemicycle of the Parliament's Louise Weiss building in Strasbourg The European Parliament forms one half of the EU's legislature. The 785 Members of the European Parliament MEPs are directly elected by EU citizens every five years. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats. The Parliament and the Council form and pass legislation jointly, using co-decision, in certain areas of policy. This procedure will extend to many new areas under the proposed Treaty of Lisbon, and hence increase the power and relevance of the Parliament. The Parliament also has the power to reject or censure the Commission and the EU budget. The President of the European Parliament carries out the role of speaker in parliament and represents it externally. The president and vice presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.37 The Council of the European Union forms the other half of the EU's legislature. It is an organised platform where national ministers responsible for the area of policy being addressed, meet. Although the Council meets in different compositions, it is considered to be one single body.38 In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy. The judicial branch of the EU consists of the European Court of Justice ECJ and the Court of First Instance. Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of the EU.39 The Court of First Instance mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts, and the ECJ primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions and cases referred to the EU's courts by the courts of member states.40 Decisions from the Court of First Instance can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.41 Legal system Further information: Law of the European Union, Treaties of the European Union, and European Union legislative procedure The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.42 These are power giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation43 which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.44 National courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and within limits even constitutional provisions.45 The ECJ in Luxembourg can judge member states over EU law. The ECJ in Luxembourg can judge member states over EU law. The main legislative acts of the EU come in two forms: Regulations and Directives. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures,46 and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.43 Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.47 When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against Member States. Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals or companies. They are most often used in Competition Law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy. One of the complicating features of the EU's legal system is the multiplicity of legislative procedures used to enact legislation. The treaties micro-manage the EU's powers, indicating different ways of adopting legislation for different policy areas and for different areas within the same policy areas.48 A common feature of the EU's legislative procedures, however, is that almost all legislation must be initiated by the Commission, rather than member states or European parliamentarians.49 The two most common procedures are co-decision, under which the European Parliament can veto proposed legislation, and consultation, under which Parliament is only permitted to give an opinion which can be ignored by European leaders. In most cases legislation must be agreed by the council.50 National courts within the Member States play a key role in the EU as enforcers of EU law, and a spirit of cooperation between EU and national courts is laid down in the Treaties. National courts can apply EU law in domestic cases, and if they require clarification on the interpretation or validity of any EU legislation related to the case it may make a reference for a preliminary ruling to the ECJ. The right to declare EU legislation invalid however is reserved to the EU courts. Fundamental rights At present the EU does not have a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which its legal acts might be judged.51 However the European Court of Justice does give judgements on fundamental rights derived from the constitutional traditions common to the Member States,52 and may even invalidate EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to these fundamental rights.51 While the EU may be said to have an unwritten fundamental rights code, there have, nonetheless, been efforts to establish a written catalogue. In 2000 the EU drew up the Charter of Fundamental Rights. The Charter is not legally binding at present but would become so if the Lisbon Treaty comes into force.53 Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights ECHR is a condition for EU membership,54 the EU itself is not covered by the convention as it is neither a state55 nor has the competence to accede.56 Nonetheless the Court of Justice and European Court of Human Rights co-operate to ensure their case-law does not conflict.57 If the Lisbon Treaty comes into force the EU would be required to accede to the ECHR.58 Foreign relations Further information: Foreign relations of the European Union and Common Foreign and Security Policy Javier Solana is the EU's High Representative in foreign policy. Javier Solana is the EU's High Representative in foreign policy. Foreign policy cooperation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a block in international trade negotiations under the Common Commercial Policy.59 Steps for a more wide ranging coordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until the 1987, when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy CFSP by the Maastricht Treaty.60 The Maastricht Treaty gives the CFSP the aims of promoting both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole. This includes promoting international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.61 The Amsterdam Treaty created the office of the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy currently held by Javier Solana to co-ordinate the EU's foreign policy.62 The High Representative, in conjunction with the current Presidency, speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy matters and can have the task of articulating ambiguous policy positions created by disagreements among member states. The Common Foreign and Security Policy requires unanimity among the now 27 member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular policy. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP makes disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq,63 not uncommon. The EU participates in all G8 summits. Heiligendamm, Germany The EU participates in all G8 summits. Heiligendamm, Germany Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered a major factor contributing to the reform of former Communist countries in Eastern Europe.64 This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as soft power, as opposed to military hard power.65 Besides the CFSP, the Commission also has its own representation in international organisations. This is primarily through the European Commissioner for External Relations, who works alongside the High Representative. In the UN, as an observer and working together, the EU has gained influence in areas such as aid due to its large contributions in that field see below.66 In the G8, the EU has rights of membership besides chairing/hosting summit meetings and is represented at meetings by the presidents of the Commission and the Council.67 In the World Trade Organisation WTO, where all 27 member states are represented, the EU as a body is represented by Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson.68 Humanitarian aid Further information: ECHO European Commission Collectively, the EU is the largest contributor of foreign aid in the world. Collectively, the EU is the largest contributor of foreign aid in the world. The European Community humanitarian aid office, or ECHO, provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2006 its budget amounted to 671 million euros, 48% of which went to the ACP countries.69 Counting the EU's own contributions and those of its member states together, the EU is the largest aid donor in the world.70 The EU's aid has previously been criticised by the eurosceptic think-tank Open Europe for being inefficient, mis-targeted and linked to economic objectives.71 Furthermore, some charities have claimed European governments have inflated the amount they have spent on aid by incorrectly including money spent on debt relief, foreign students, and refugees. Under the de-inflated figures, the EU did not reach its internal aid target in 200672 and the EU would not reach the international target of 0.7% of GNP until 2015. However, only a few countries have reached that target. In 2005 EU aid was 0.34% of the GNP which was higher than that of the United States and Japan.73 The current commissioner for aid, Louis Michel, has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly, to greater effect, and on humanitarian principles.70 Military and defence Main articles: European Security and Defence Policy and Military of the European Union CFSP forces are peacekeeping in parts of the Balkans and Africa. CFSP forces are peacekeeping in parts of the Balkans and Africa. Member states are responsible for their own territorial defence. Many EU members are also members of NATO although some member states follow policies of neutrality.74 The Western European Union WEU is a European security organisation related to the EU. In 1992, the WEU's relationship with the EU was defined, when the EU assigned it the Petersberg tasks humanitarian missions such as peacekeeping and crisis management. These tasks were later transferred from the WEU to the EU by the Amsterdam Treaty; they formed part of the new CFSP and the European Security and Defence Policy. Elements of the WEU are currently being merged into the EU's CFSP, and the President of the WEU is currently CFSP High Representative.7576 Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO. To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 men.77 EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the Middle East.78 EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff.79 Justice and home affairs The Schengen Agreement has ensured open borders between most member states. The Schengen Agreement has ensured open borders between most member states. Further information: Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters and European Commissioner for Justice, Freedom Security Over the years the EU has developed a wide competence in the justice and home affairs area. Using these the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition,80 family law,81 asylum law82 and criminal justice.83 Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.84 and in more recent years these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age and sexual orientation.85 Using these powers the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination and racial discrimination.86 The EU has also established agencies to co-ordinate its actions in the justice and home affairs area: Europol for co-operation of police forces,87 Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,88 and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.89 The EU also operates the Schengen Information System8 which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. Economy Further information: Economy of the European Union 163 of the world´s 500 largest corporations are headquartered in EU countries. Nokia, Finland 163 of the world´s 500 largest corporations are headquartered in EU countries. Nokia, Finland Since its origin, the EU has established a single economic market across the territory of all its members. Currently, a single currency is in use between the 15 members of the eurozone9091. Considered as a single economy, the EU generated an estimated nominal gross domestic product GDP of US$16,830 billion in 2007, amounting to 31% of the world's total economic output,3 which makes it the largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and the second largest trade bloc economy in the world by PPP valuation of GDP. It is also the largest exporter of goods,92 the second largest importer,93 and the biggest trading partner to several large countries such as India, and China.949596 163 of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue Fortune Global 500 have their headquarters in the EU.97 In May 2007 unemployment in the EU stood at 7%98 while investment was at 21.4% of GDP, inflation at 2.2% and public deficit at -0.9% of GDP.99 There is a great deal of variance for annual per capita income within individual EU states, these range from $7,000 to $69,000 USD.100 Single market Further information: Four Freedoms European Union Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently renamed the single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people and services within the EU,91 and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they can not be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union.24 Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.101 EU member states have a standardised passport design with the relevant national emblem at the centre, and with the name of the state and European Union given in the national languages. EU member states have a standardised passport design with the relevant national emblem at the centre, and with the name of the state and European Union given in the national languages.102 Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.103 Until the drive towards Economic and Monetary Union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgments regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as that it is granted equally to non-member countries. The free movement of persons means citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.104 Traditionally the economically active were granted a much greater level of freedom than others. The extension to the non-economically active was first recognised in 1993 when the concept of Community Citizenship was introduced to the EU. In addition to extending the scope of the free movement of persons, it also grants certain social and political rights to the citizens of the EU. The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states in order to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. Services account for between sixty and seventy percent of GDP, although legislation is not as developed as in other sectors. This has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise this area of the market.105 According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised. The freedoms are not absolute in nature. Member states may limit the exercise of the freedoms in accordance with the specific grounds laid down in the Treaty. For example, the Treaty allows member states to restrict movements that would pose a real threat to public policy or public security. In the absence of Community legislation it is for the member states to decide the scope of the exceptions. The European courts arbitrate as to whether the actions of the member state are proportionate and in conformity with Community law. Monetary union Further information: Euro and Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union The European Central Bank in Frankfurt governs the Eurozone monetary policy. The European Central Bank in Frankfurt governs the Eurozone monetary policy. The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the EU in 1969. However, it was only with the advent of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 that member states were legally bound to start the monetary union no later than 1 January 1999. On this date the euro was duly launched by eleven of the then fifteen member states of the EU. It remained an accounting currency until 1 January 2002, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the Eurozone, which by then consisted of twelve member states. The Eurozone has since grown to fifteen countries, the most recent being Cyprus and Malta which joined on 1 January 2008. All other EU member states, except Denmark and the United Kingdom, are legally bound to join the euro when the economic conditions are met, however only a few countries have set target dates for accession. Sweden has circumvented the requirement to join the euro area by not meeting the membership criteria. Slovakia is scheduled to introduce the euro on 1 January 2009. A number of other countries outside the EU, such as Montenegro, use the euro unofficially.26 The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it, are under the control of the European Central Bank ECB.106 There are twelve other currencies used in the EU.90 The euro is designed to help build a single market by, for example: easing travel of citizens and goods, eliminating exchange rate problems, providing price transparency, creating a single financial market, price stability and low interest rates, and providing a currency used internationally and protected against shocks by the large amount of internal trade within the eurozone. It is also intended as a political symbol of integration and stimulus for more.90 Competition Further information: European Community competition law and European Commissioner for Competition The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.107 The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid.108 The Competition Commissioner, currently Neelie Kroes, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans-national corporations.109 For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States which had already been approved by their national authority.110 Another high profile case, European Union v. Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over €777 million following nine years of legal action.111 In negotiations on the Treaty of Lisbon, French President Nicolas Sarkozy succeeded in removing the words free and undistorted competition from the treaties. However, the requirement is maintained in an annex and it is unclear whether this will have any practical effect on EU policy.112 Budget Main article: Budget of the European Union 2006 EU total expenditure. Agriculture: 46.7% Structural Actions: 30.4% Internal Policies: 8.5% Administration: 6.3% External Actions: 4.9% Pre-Accession Strategy: 2.1% Compensations: 1.0% Reserves: 0.1% 2006 EU total expenditure. Agriculture: 46.7% Structural Actions: 30.4% Internal Policies: 8.5% Administration: 6.3% External Actions: 4.9% Pre-Accession Strategy: 2.1% Compensations: 1.0% Reserves: 0.1% The twenty-seven member state EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007-2013,113 representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. By comparison, the UK's expenditure for 2004 was estimated to be €759 billion, and France was estimated to have spent €801 billion. In 1960, the six member state EEC the predecessor of the EU budget was 0.03% of GDP.114 In the 2006 budget, the largest single expenditure item was agriculture direct aid, export refunds, storage, rural development and other with around 46.7% of the total budget. Next came structural actions Objective 1, Objective 2, Objective 3, other structural measures, community initiatives, innovatory measures and technical assistance, other specific structural operations and the cohesion fund with approximately 30.4% of the total. Internal policies training, youth, culture, audiovisual, media, information, energy, Euratom nuclear safeguards and environment, consumer protection, internal market, industry and Trans-European networks, research and technological development, other internal policies took up around 8.5%. Administration accounted for around 6.3%. External actions, the pre-accession strategy, compensations and reserves brought up the rear with approximately 4.9%, 2.1%, 1% and 0.1% respectively.115 Development Agriculture Main article: Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy CAP is one the oldest policies of the European Community and was one of its core aims.116 The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers article 33 of the Treaty of Rome.28 It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s the policy accounted for over 60% of the then European Community's annual budget, and still accounts for around 35%.116 EU farms are supported by the CAP, the largest budgetary expenditure. Vineyard in Spain EU farms are supported by the CAP, the largest budgetary expenditure. Vineyard in Spain The policy's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction, resulting in so-called butter mountains and wine lakes. These were intervention stores of produce bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. In order to dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices to export their produce outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under-cutting farmers in the developing world.117 The overproduction has also been criticised on environmental grounds in that it encourages environmentally unfriendly intensive farming methods.117 Supporters of CAP say that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living, in what would otherwise be an economically unviable way of life. However, the EU's small farmers only receive 8% of CAP's available subsidies.117 Since the beginning of the 1990s the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially these reforms included the introduction of set-aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas by the McSharry reforms in 1992 and more recently, the 'de-coupling' or disassociation of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce by the Fischler reforms in 2004. It is intended to move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to have the effect of allowing the market to dictate production levels while maintaining agricultural income levels.116 The most recent reform entailed the abolition of the EU's sugar regime which previously involved the carving up of the sugar market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU.118 Energy Main article: Energy policy of the European Union EU production of primary energy 46% of total EU energy consumption Nuclear energy 29.3% Coal lignite 21.9% Gas 19.4% Renewable energy 14.6% Oil 13.4% Other 1.4% Net imports of primary energy 54% of total EU energy consumption Oil petroleum products 60.2% Gas 26.4% Other 13.4% In 2006, the 27 member states of the EU had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent toe.119 Around 46% of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54% was imported.119 The EU has been a legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.120 The Commission has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing use of renewable energy; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.120 The EU currently imports 82% of its oil and 57% of its gas demands.121 There are concerns that the EU is largely dependent on other countries, primarily Russia, for its energy. This concern has grown following a series of clashes between Russia and its neighbours, threatening the flow of gas. As a result the EU is attempting to diversify its energy supply.122 Infrastructure Further information: European Commissioner for Transport and European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry The Oresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden is part of the Trans-European Networks The Oresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden is part of the Trans-European Networks The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks TEN. Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Oresund Bridge and the Brenner Base Tunnel. In 2001 it was estimated that by 2010 the network would cover: 75,200 kilometres 46,700 mi of roads; 78,000 kilometres 48,000 mi of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.123124 The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda.125 The Polish road network in particular was in poor condition: at Poland's accession to the EU, 4,600 roads needed to be upgraded to EU standards, demanding approximately 17 billion euros.126 Another infrastructure project is the Galileo positioning system. Galileo is a proposed Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency ESA, and is to be operational by 2010. The Galileo project was launched to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, which will extend to nations outside the EU.127 It has been criticised by some due to costs, delays, and their perception of redundancy given the existence of that system.128 Regional development Further information: Regional policy of the European Union EU funds finance infrastructure such as the motorway Prague-Berlin. Lovosice, Czech Republic EU funds finance infrastructure such as the motorway Prague-Berlin. Lovosice, Czech Republic There are substantial economical disparities across the EU. Even corrected for purchasing power, the difference between the richest and poorest regions NUTS-2 and NUTS-3 of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics is about a factor of ten. On the high end Frankfurt has €71,476 PPP per capita, Paris €68,989, and Inner London €67,798, while the three poorest NUTS, all in Romania, are Vaslui County with €3,690 PPP per capita, Botoşani County with €4,115, and Giurgiu County with €4,277.129 Compared to the EU average, the United States GDP per capita is 35% higher and the Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher.130 There are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds to support development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the new member states of eastern Europe.131 Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD, and support to the former USSR Commonwealth of Independent States TACIS. TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. The EU Seventh Framework Programme FP7 sponsors research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area.132 Environment Further information: European Commissioner for the Environment and European Climate Change Programme The first environmental policy of the European Community was launched in 1972. Since then it has addressed issues such as acid rain, the thinning of the ozone layer, air quality, noise pollution, waste and water pollution. The Water framework directive is an example of a water policy, aiming for rivers, lakes, ground and coastal waters to be of good quality by 2015. Wildlife is protected through the Natura 2000 programme and covers 30,000 sites throughout Europe.133 In 2007, the Polish government sought to build a motorway through the Rospuda valley, but the Commission has been blocking construction as the valley is a wildlife area covered by the programme.134 The Commission is trying to protect the Rospuda valley in Poland. The Commission is trying to protect the Rospuda valley in Poland. The REACH regulation was a piece of EU legislation designed to ensure that 30,000 chemicals in daily use are tested for their safety.135 In 2006, toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, from a European ship, prompted the Commission to look into legislation regarding toxic waste. With members such as Spain now having criminal laws against shipping toxic waste, the Commission proposed to create criminal sentences for ecological crimes. Although the Commission's right to propose criminal law was contested, it was confirmed in this case by the Court of Justice.136 In 2007, member states agreed that the EU is to use 20% renewable energy in the future and that is has to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.137 This includes measures that in 2020, one-tenth of all cars and trucks in EU 27 should be running on biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves of an important industrialised region to fight global warming.138 At the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference, dealing with the successor to the Kyoto Protocol, the EU has proposed at 50% cut in greenhouse gases by 2050.139 The EU's attempts to cut its carbon footprint appear to have also been aided by an expansion of Europe's forests which, between 1990 and 2005, grew 10% in western Europe and 15% in Eastern Europe. During this period they soaked up 126 million metric tons of carbon dioxide, equivalent to 11% of EU emissions from human activities.139 The ambitious EU goals for the Kyoto Protocols have not been met and there is serious doubt that they can ever be.140141142143 Education and research Further information: Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union and Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development Renewable energy is one priority in transnational research activities such as the FP7. Renewable energy is one priority in transnational research activities such as the FP7. Education and science are areas where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In education, the policy was mainly developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the ERASMUS programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life.144 There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.145 Through its support of the Bologna process the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe. Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.146 The Seventh Framework Programme FP7 deals in a number of areas, for example energy where it aims to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy for the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.147 Since January 2000 the European Commission has set its sights on a more ambitious objective, known as the European Research Area, and has extensively funded research in a few key areas. This has the support of all member states, and extends the existing financing structure of the frameworks. It aims to focus on co-ordination, sharing knowledge, ensuring mobility of researchers around Europe, improving conditions for researchers and encouraging links with business and industry as well as removing any legal and administrative barriers.148 The EU is involved with six other countries to develop ITER, a fusion reactor which will be built in the EU at Cadarache. ITER builds on the previous project, Joint European Torus, which is currently the largest nuclear fusion reactor in the world.149 The Commission foresees this technology to be generating energy in the EU by 2050.120 It has observer status within CERN, there are various agreements with ESA and there is collaboration with ESO.150 These organizations are not under the framework of the EU, but membership heavily overlaps between them. Demographics Main article: Demographics of the European Union Population of the 5 largest cities in the EU151 City City limits 2006 Density /km² city limits Density /sq mi city limits Urban area 2005 LUZ 2004 Berlin 3,410,000 3,815 9,880 3,761,000 4,971,331 London 7,512,400 4,761 12,330 9,332,000 11,917,000 Madrid 3,228,359 5,198 13,460 4,858,000 5,804,829 Paris 2,153,600 24,672 63,900 9,928,000 11,089,124 Rome 2,708,395 2,105 5,450 2,867,000 3,457,690 The combined population of all 27 member countries has been estimated at 495,128,529 in January 2007,152 this in comparison to approximately 710 million Europeans on the continent as a whole. There is some increase in population expected, primarily due to net immigration, present in most European countries.153154 The EU's population is 7.3% of the world total, yet the EU covers just 3% of the earth's land, amounting to a population density of 114 /km² 300 /sq mi 2006 making the EU one of the most densely populated regions of the world. One third of EU citizens live in cities of over a million people, rising to 80% living in urban areas generally.155 The EU is home to more global cities than any other region in the world.156 It contains 16 cities with populations of over one million. Besides many large cities, the EU also includes several densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cites and are now encompassing large metropolitan areas. The largest are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 10.5 million inhabitants Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al., Randstad approx. 7 million Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al., Frankfurt Rhein-Main Region approx. 5.8 million Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al., the Flemish diamond approx. 5.5 million urban area in between Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven and Ghent, the Oresund Region approx. 3.7 million Copenhagen, Denmark and Malmo, Sweden, and the Upper Silesian Industrial Region approx. 3.5 million Katowice, Sosnowiec et al..157 Languages Main article: Languages of the European Union Languages 2006158 Language L1 Total English 13% 51% German 18% 32% French 13% 26% Italian 13% 16% Spanish 9% 15% Polish 9% 10% Romanian 7% 8% Dutch 5% 6% Greek 3% 3% Hungarian 3% 3% Swedish 2% 3% Czech 2% 3% Portuguese 2% 2% Bulgarian 2% 2% Slovak 1% 1% Other EU Languages ~6% Minority Languages ~16% L1: Native language Total: EU citizens able to conduct conversation in this language Among the many languages and dialects used in the EU, it has 23 official and working languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish, and Swedish.159 Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language. The European Parliament provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary sessions. Some institutions use only a handful of languages as internal working languages.160 Language policy is the responsibility of member states, but EU institutions promote the learning of other languages.161162 German is the most widely spoken mother tongue about 88.7 million people as of 2006, followed by English, French, and Italian. English is by far the most spoken foreign language at over half 51% of the population, with German and French following. 56% of European citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.158 Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is a Semitic language. Most EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written in Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.163 Besides the 23 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.163 Of these, only the Spanish regional languages Catalan, Basque and Galician, Scottish Gaelic and Welsh 164 can be used by citizens in communication with the main European institutions.165 Although EU programmes can support regional and minority languages, the protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states. Besides the many regional languages, a broad variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by immigrant communities in the member states: Turkish, Maghrebi Arabic, Russian, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Tamil, Ukrainian, and Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are bilingual, being fluent in both the local EU language and in that of their ancestral community. Migrant languages have no formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries, although from 2007 they are eligible for support from the language teaching section of the EU's Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013.163 Religion Main article: Religion in the European Union The EU is a secular body, with no formal connections to any religion and no mention of religion in any current or proposed treaty.28 Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity and/or god in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.166 Percentage of Europeans in each Member State who believe in some deity Percentage of Europeans in each Member State who believe in some deity Emphasis on Christianity stems from this being the dominant religion in Europe, and thus of the EU. It divides between Roman Catholicism, a wide range of Protestant churches especially in northern Europe and Eastern Orthodox in south eastern Europe. Other religions such as Islam and Judaism are also represented in the EU population. The EU had an estimated Muslim population of 16 million in 2006.167, and an estimated Jewish population of over a million168 Eurobarometer opinion polls organised by Eurostat show that the majority of EU citizens have some form of belief system but that only 21% see it as important. There is increasing atheism or agnosticism among the general population in Europe, with falling church attendance and membership in many countries.169 The 2005 Eurobarometer showed that of the European citizens of the 25 members at that time, 52% believed in a god, 27% in some sort of spirit or life force and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic 19% and Estonia 16%,170 The most religious countries are Malta 95%; predominantly Roman Catholic, and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in god. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education, those leaning towards right-wing politics, and those reflecting more upon philosophical and ethical issues.170 Other significant religions present in the EU territories are Buddhism and Hinduism with the latter having a strong presence in the United Kingdom.171 Culture Further information: Culture of Europe and Cultural policies of the European Union Liverpool is one of the two European Capitals of Culture for 2008. Liverpool is one of the two European Capitals of Culture for 2008. Policies affecting cultural matters are mainly set by individual member states. Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.172 Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 7-year programme,172 the European Cultural Month event,173 the Media Plus programme,174 orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra175 and the European Capital of Culture programme - where one or more cities in the EU are selected for one year to assist the cultural development of that city.176 In addition, the EU gives grants to cultural projects totalling 233 in 2004 and has launched a Web portal dedicated to Europe and culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means.177 Within the EU, politicians, such as the President of the European Parliament, appeal to a shared European historical/cultural heritage, including Greek philosophy, Roman law, the Judeo-Christian heritage, and a tradition of freedom and democracy, but also negative elements such as the World wars.178 Sport Further information: Sport in Europe and Sport policies of the European Union Spectator sports are popular in much of the EU Camp Nou, Barcelona Spectator sports are popular in much of the EU Camp Nou, Barcelona Sport is mainly the responsibility of individual member states or other international organisations rather than that of the EU. However, some EU policies have had an impact on sport, such as the free movement of workers which was at the core of the Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship.179 Under the proposed Treaty of Lisbon sports would be given a special status which would exempt this sector from much of the EU's economic rules. This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the applications of free market principles to sport which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.180 Several European sports associations are consulted in the formulation of the EU's sports policy, including FIBA, UEFA, EHF, IIHF, FIRA and CEV.181 All EU member states and their respective national sport associations participate in European sport organisations such as UEFA.182 See also v d e Flag of Europe European Union topics History History of Europe · European Communities European Coal and Steel Community ECSC · European Economic Community EEC · Euratom Timeline Pre-1945 · 1945-1957 · 1958-1972 · 1973-1993 · 1993-1999 · 1999-2004 · since 2004 Politics Enlargement · Eurojust · Europol · Three pillars Community · Common Foreign and Security Policy · Police and Judicial Cooperation · Integration · Military · Space Government Agencies · Commission · Council · Courts · Elections · European Council · Foreign relations · Parliament · Political parties Law Acquis · Competition law · Copyright law · Journal · Opt-outs · Procedure · Regulation · Schengen Agreement · Charter of Fundamental Rights · Treaties Geography Borders · Extreme points · Largest cities · Largest urban areas · Largest metropolitan areas · Member states · Special member-state territories · Regions Economy Common Agricultural Policy CAP · Budget · Euro · Central Bank · Free movement of labour · Investment Bank · Investment Fund · Eurozone · Energy · Regional development · Transport Galileo system Culture Citizenship · Demographics · Education · Institute of Innovation and Technology · Languages · News media · Religion · Sport · Symbols · Statistics Lists Agencies · Councils · Directives · Largest cities · Political parties · Presidency · Tallest buildings · Vehicle registration plates · Acronyms, Jargon and Working Practices Portal References ^ a b Symbols of the EU. 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Retrieved on 2008-09-05. ^ Specific Programme: 'Criminal Justice'. Europa. Retrieved on 2008-09-05. ^ EUR-Lex. European Community consolidated treaty, articles 39 and 141, prohibition of national or sexual discrimination PDF. Europa. Retrieved on 2008-02-28. ^ EUR-Lex. Amsterdam treaty article 2 s.7 amending European Community consolidated treaty article 13, combating discrimination. Europa. Retrieved on 2008-02-28. ^ Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22-26; Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation OJ L 303, 2.12.2000, p. 16-22. ^ European police office now in full swing. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-09-04. ^ Eurojust coordinating cross-border prosecutions at EU level. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-09-04. ^ Frontex. What is Frontex?. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-09-04. ^ a b c European Commission. The Euro: our currency. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-11-12. ^ a b The Single Market. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. ^ Rank Order - Exports. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. ^ Rank Order - Imports. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. ^ China now EU's biggest import market. People's Daily Online 2007-01-31. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. ^ EU now biggest trading partner of China. Chinese Embassy 2006-09-15. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. ^ India and the EU: strategic partners?. Centre for European Reform February/March 2006. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. ^ Fortune Global 500: Countries. CNN Money 2007-07-23. Retrieved on 2007-08-24. ^ Euro area and EU 27 unemployment down to 7.0% PDF. Europa 2007-07-03. Retrieved on 2007-11-01. ^ Eur4. Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects. International Monetary Fund April 2007. Retrieved on 2007-11-29. ^ World Factbook, US CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ee.html ^ European Commission. A Single Market for goods. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. ^ New-generation passports to appear in Lithuania starting New Years. Retrieved on 2008-03-17. ^ European Commission. A Single Market for Capital. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. ^ European Commission. Living and working in the Single Market. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. ^ European Commission. A Single Market for Services. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. ^ ECB, ESCB and the Eurosystem. European Central Bank. Retrieved on 2007-09-15. ^ Article 31g of the Treaty of Rome ^ European Commission. Competition: making markets work better. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-11-12. ^ Lungescu, Oana 2004-07-23. Examining the EU executive. BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-09-18. ^ The Commission prohibits GE's acquisition of Honeywell. Europa 2001-07-03. Retrieved on 2007-11-12. ^ Gow, David 2007-10-22. Microsoft caves in to European commission. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2007-11-12. ^ EU competition to remain in place. BBC News 2007-06-22. Retrieved on 2007-11-12. ^ QA on Interinstitutional Agreement on Budgetary Discipline and Sound Financial Management 2007-2013. ^ Will Europe Work?. Euro-know. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. ^ European Commission. Detailed data 2000-2007 PDF. Europa. Retrieved on 2008-07-07. ^ a b c Stead, David; Robert Whaples eds 2007-06-22. Common Agricultural Policy. EH.Net Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 2007-08-30. ^ a b c Jeffery, Simon 2007-06-26. The EU common agricultural policy. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2007-08-30. ^ Sugar: Commission proposes more market-, consumer- and trade-friendly regime. Europa 2007-04-14. Retrieved on 2007-08-30. ^ a b Eurostat 2008-07-10. Energy consumption and production: EU27 energy dependence rate at 54% in 2006: Energy consumption stable pdf. Press release. Retrieved on 2008-09-12. In the EU27, gross inland energy consumption was 1 825 million tonnes of oil equivalent toe in 2006, stable compared with 2005, while energy production decreased by 2.3% to 871 mn toe. . . . Gross inland consumption is defined as primary production plus imports, recovered products and stock change, less exports and fuel supply to maritime bunkers for seagoing ships of all flags. . . . . A tonne of oil equivalent toe is a standardised unit defined on the basis of one tonne of oil having a net calorific value of 41.868 Gigajoules. ^ a b c QA: EU energy plans. BBC News 2007-03-09. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. ^ 'Low-carbon economy' proposed for Europe. MSNBC. Retrieved on 2007-01-24. ^ European Parliament. Ukraine-Russia gas dispute - call for stronger EU energy policy. Europa. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. ^ European Commission 2003-10-01. The trans-European transport network: new guidelines and financial rules PDF. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. ^ Mirea, Silvia. The trans-European transport network: new guidelines and financial rules. The Railway Journal. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. ^ White Paper on Transport. Euractiv 2004-09-22. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. ^ Transport - How Quickly will Polish Roads Improve After Accession. Urząd Komitetu Integracji Europejskiej 2003-05-29. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. ^ Barrot, Jacques. Jacques Barrot Home Page, Commission vice president for transport. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. ^ McKie, Robin 2007-07-15. Sat-nav rival could crash and burn. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2007-08-11. ^ Eurostat. Table: E3GDP95 = Gross domestic product GDP at current market prices at NUTS level 3. Retrieved on 2008-08-11. ^ Eurostat 2006-12-18. GDP per capita in the Member States ranged from 48% to 251% of the EU25 average in 2005. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. ^ EU Structural and Cohesion Funds. Business 2000. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. ^ 7th Research Framework Programme FP7. Euractiv 2004. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. ^ Dimas, Stavros 2007-03-23. Celebrating the Environmental Union. BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. ^ Easton, Adam 2007-07-31. Poland ends stand-off with EU over road plans. Financial Times. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. ^ EU chemicals directive agreed. RTÉ News And Current Affairs 2006-12-01. Retrieved on 2007-08-15. ^ Charter, David. A new legal environment in English, E!Sharp, People Power Process, pp. 23-5. ^ Aldred, Jessica. EU sets 20% target for carbon cuts. guardian.co.uk. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. ^ Ames, Paul 2007-03-09. European Union agrees on ambitious plan to fight global warming. Discovery Channel, on Valcent Products website. Retrieved on 2007-03-09. ^ a b In Bali, EU Floats 50% Greenhouse Gas Cut. BusinessWeek 2007-12-04. Retrieved on 2007-12-07. ^ IETA July 2006. www.ieta.org ^ EU nowhere near meeting Kyoto targets. Andrew Osborn. The Guardian, Wednesday December 3 2003 ^ http://www.energy.eu/archive/index.php ^ IPS. Sepember 6, 2008. CLIMATE CHANGE: EU Leaders Fail Planet - Mary Robinson. By David Cronin. http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40202 ^ European Commission. The Erasmus programme celebrates its 20th anniversary. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-21.; Jean-Sébastien, Lefebvre 2007-01-22. Erasmus turns 20 - time to grow up?. Café Babel. Retrieved on 2007-08-10. ^ EACEA. About the Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-21.; European Commission. Lifelong Learning Programme. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. ^ European Research Council. What is the ERC?. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. ^ European Commission. Energy. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-11-12. ^ European Commission. What is the European Research Area?. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. ^ Fusion for energy. ITER fusion research project. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-09-24. ^ Astronomical research collaborations. ESO. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. ^ LUZ figures all for 2004Data that can be accessed. Urban Audit. European Commission, Directorate-General Regional Policy, Unit D2 Urban Actions. Retrieved on 2008-07-31. Urban areas: all figures for 2005 est.: Pays, villes d'Europe et du monde. InsInstitut National de la Statistiqueet des Études Économiques. Retrieved on 2008-02-06. City limits figures: London as at 1 July 2006: Mid-2006 Population Estimates CSV. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved on 2008-02-06. Berlin as at September 2007: Bevölkerung Berlin. Statistische Ämter des Bundes und der Länder German statistics office. Retrieved on 2008-02-06. Madrid as at 1 january 2007: Cifras de población. Instituto Nacional de Estadística Spanish national statistics office. Retrieved on 2008-02-06. Paris as at 1 July 2005: Résultats des enquêtes annuelles de recensement de 2004 à 2007 pour les grandes villes. Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques French national institute for statistics. Retrieved on 2008-02-06. Rome as at 31 December 2007 Bilancio demografico Anno 2007. ISTAT Italian national statistics office. Retrieved on 2008-02-06. ^ Eurostat. Total population. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-14. ^ Eurostat 2005-04-08. EU25 population rises until 2025, then falls PDF. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-14. ^ Muenz, Rainer 2006. Europe: Population and Migration in 2005. Migration Information. Retrieved on 2007-07-14. ^ A densely populated area. Telsat Guide. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. ^ The World According to GaWC. Loughborough University. Retrieved on 2007-06-29. ^ Eurostat. Indicators for larger urban zones 1999 - 2003. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-01-25. ^ a b European Commission 2006. Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages Survey PDF. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-02-03. European Commission 2006. Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages Executive Summary PDF. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-02-03. ^ EUR-Lex 2006-12-12. Council Regulation EC No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006. Official Journal of the European Union. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-02-02. ^ Languages and Europe. FAQ: Is every document generated by the EU translated into all the official languages?. Europa 2004. Retrieved on 2007-02-03. ^ EUR-Lex 2004. Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, Articles 149 to 150. Official Journal of the European Union. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-02-01. ^ European Parliament 2004. European Parliament Fact Sheets: 4.16.3. Language policy. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-02-03. ^ a b c European Commission 2004. Many tongues, one family. Languages in the European Union PDF. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-02-03. ^ Welsh and Gaelic are official EU tongues. Times Online. ^ Mercator Newsletter - n. 29. Mercator Central 2006. Retrieved on 2007-02-01. ^ Castle, Stephen 2007-03-21. EU celebrates 50th birthday-with a row about religion. The Independent. Retrieved on 2008-03-04. ^ In Europa leben gegen-wärtig knapp 53 millionen Muslime. Islam.de 2006-02-25. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. ^ Jewish population figures may be unreliable. Sergio DellaPergola. World Jewish Population 2002. American Jewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved on 2007-05-03. ^ Ford, Peter 2005-02-22. What place for God in Europe. USA Today. Retrieved on 2008-03-04. ^ a b Eurostat 2005. Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science Technology PDF. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. ^ UK 2001 census ^ a b Bozoki, Andras. Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union PDF. IECOB, Institute for Central Eastern and Balkan Europe. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. ^ European Commission. European Culture Month. Europa. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. ^ European Commission 2007-07-05. Media programme. Europa. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. ^ An Overture to the European Union Youth Orchestra. The European Youth Orchestra. Retrieved on 2007-08-12. ^ European Commission. European Capitals of Culture. Europa. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. ^ Cultural heritage as a vehicle of cultural identity. Europa 2006-05-03. Retrieved on 2008-03-04. ^ For example: Hans-Gert Poettering 2007-02-13. Priority is dialogue for partnership and tolerance. Inaugural speech by the new president of the European Parliament. Europa, European parliament. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. The greatest success . . . has been overcoming the division of Europe. But shared values have prevailed. . . . Europeans should be proud of what they have achieved by their labours over the centuries in terms of values, freedom, law and democracy. It has been a long haul. We know that our European roots lie in Greek philosophy, Roman law, the Judeo-Christian heritage, the Enlightenment - in other words, our shared European culture. But there have also been tragic European civil wars, and in the 20th century the totalitarian ideologies, with their disdain for humanity, and then, in 1945, the courage of the founding fathers in following the path of forgiveness and reconciliation, in building a new, better, more peaceful, shared Europe. ^ Fordyce, Tom 2007-07-11. 10 years since Bosman. BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. ^ IOC, FIFA presidents welcomes new EU treaty, call it breakthrough to give sports more power. International Herald Tribune 2007-10-19. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. ^ Statement of European team sports PDF. UEFA.com 2007-10-19. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. ^ UEFA. UEFA.com 2007-10-19. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. Further reading Craig, Paul; Gráinne de Búrca 2007. EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials, 4th ed., Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927389-8. Steiner, Josephine; Lorna Woods; Christian Twigg-Flesner 2006. EU Law, 9th ed., Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927959-3. Barnard, Catherine 2007. The Substantive Law of the EU: The Four Freedoms, 2nd ed., Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929839-6. Jenson, Jane; Denis Saint-Martin March 2003. Is Europe still sui generis?, 27-29 March 2003, Nashville, Tennessee PDF. Eighth Biennial International Conference, European Union Studies Association. Retrieved on 2007-11-13. Access to European Union: law, economics, policies by Nicholas Moussis European Study Service, 2007 - 16th ed. ISBN 978-2-930119-43-4 Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan Palgrave Macmillan, 2004 ISBN 978-0-333-98734-6 Understanding the European Union 3rd ed by John McCormick Palgrave Macmillan, 2005 ISBN 978-1-4039-4451-1 The Institutions of the European Union ed by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton, 2nd ion Oxford University Press, 2006 ISBN 0198700520 The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004 ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3 The European Union Collective: Enemy of its Member States by Christopher Story Edward Harle Limited, 2002 ISBN 1-899798-01-3 The European Constitution and the Imperatives of Transnational DemocracyPDF 132 KB by Hans Köchler, Singapore Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 9 2005, Accessed 25 January 2007 External links Find more about European Union on 's sister projects: Dictionary definitions Textbooks Quotations Source texts Images and media News stories Learning resources Government EUROPA - official web portal EU Institutions Commission Council Court of Justice Parliament Agencies EUR-Lex - EU Laws Overviews and data European Community - OECD data European Union - CIA World Factbook entry European NAvigator - Website on EU history Europe of cultures 50 years of artistic creation and cultural life from the 27 countries of the European Union v d e Supranationalism and World government topics Theory Supranationalism · Federalism · Confederation · Intergovernmentalism · Anti-nationalism · Globalization · Democratic mundialization · Pax · Cosmopolitanism International bodies United Nations UN · Interpol · International Monetary Fund IMF · World Bank Group WBG · World Trade Organization WTO Regional bodies European Union EU · Council of Europe · Arab League · African Union AU · Union of South American Nations USAN · Shanghai Cooperation Organisation SCO · Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN · Commonwealth of Independent States CIS · Organization of American States OAS · South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SAARC · Pacific Islands Forum PIF International parliaments United Nations General Assembly · European Parliament · Arab Parliament · Pan-African Parliament · Latin American Parliament · South American Parliament · Mercosur Parliament · Central American Parliament · Inter-Parliamentary Union International courts International Criminal Court · International Court of Justice · International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ICTY · African Court of Justice · Central American Court of Justice · Caribbean Court of Justice · Inter-American Court of Human Rights · European Court of Justice · European Court of Human Rights Law and treaties International law public · private · supranational · United Nations Charter · Rome Statute · Kyoto Protocol · European Union treaties · European Union law History League of Nations · Permanent Court of International Justice · Nuremberg Trials · Permanent Court of Arbitration Proposals and concepts World government · United Nations Parliamentary Assembly · Central Asian Union · Pacific Union · North American Union · Federal Europe Movements Federal Union · World Federalist Movement · Global citizens movement · World Union v d e Group of Eight G8 Members Flag of Canada Canada Flag of France France Flag of Germany Germany Flag of Italy Italy Flag of Japan Japan Flag of Russia Russia Flag of the United Kingdom United Kingdom Flag of the United States United States Additional representative Flag of Europe European Union v d e Quartet on the Middle East Negotiating parties Flag of Israel Israel · Palestinian flag Palestinian Authority Diplomatic quartet Flag of Europe European Union Solana · Flag of Russia Russia Lavrov · Flag of the United Nations United Nations Ban · Flag of the United States United States Rice Special Envoy Tony Blair v d e South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SAARC Members Flag of Afghanistan Afghanistan · Flag of Bangladesh Bangladesh · Flag of Bhutan Bhutan · Flag of India India · Flag of the Maldives Maldives · Flag of Nepal Nepal · Flag of Pakistan Pakistan · Flag of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Flag Observers Flag of Australia Australia · Flag of the People's Republic of China China PRC · Flag of Europe European Union · Flag of Iran Iran · Flag of Japan Japan · Flag of Mauritius Mauritius · Flag of Burma Myanmar · Flag of South Korea South Korea · Flag of the United States United States Guest Flag of South Africa South Africa Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/European_Union Categories: European Union | Supranational unions | Continental unions | Federalism | Political systems | International organizations of Europe | 1951 establishments Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ Anglo-Saxon العربية Aragonés Armãneashce Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycan Bamanankan বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Белару�?ка�? 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