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07-SEPTEMBER-2008 03:17:44 - Nigeria OrÃlẹ̀-èdè Olómìnira Àpapá»?Ì€ NaìjÃrìà Republik Nijeriya جمهورية نيجيريا Republic ndi Naigeria Republik Federaal bu Niiseriya Federal Republic of Nigeria Flag of Nigeria Coat of arms of Nigeria Flag Coat of arms Motto: Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress Anthem: Arise O Compatriots, Nigeria's Call Obey Location of Nigeria Capital Abuja 9°10'N 7°10'E / 9.167, 7.167 Largest city Lagos Official languages English Recognised regional languages Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Edo Demonym Nigerian Government Presidential Federal republic - President Umaru Yar'Adua PDP - Vice President Goodluck Jonathan PDP - Senate President David Mark PDP - Speaker of the House Dimeji Bankole PDP - Chief Justice Idris Kutigi Independence from the United Kingdom - Declared and recognized October 1, 1960 - Republic declared October 1, 1963 Area - Total 923,768 km² 32nd 356,667 sq mi - Water % 1.4 Population - 2007 United Nation estimate 148,000,0001 8th - Density 145/km² 71st 374/sq mi GDP PPP 2006 estimate - Total $191.4 billion 47th² - Per capita $1,500 165th² Gini 2003 43.7 medium HDI 2007 â–² 0.470 low 158th Currency Nigerian naira ₦ NGN Time zone WAT UTC+1 - Summer DST not observed UTC+1 Internet TLD .ng Calling code +234 1 Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. ² The GDP estimate is as of 2006; the total and per capita ranks, however, are based on 2005 numbers. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea, part of the Atlantic Ocean, in the south. The capital city is Abuja. The people of Nigeria have an extensive history, and archaeological evidence shows that human habitation of the area dates back to at least 9000 BC.2 The Benue-Cross River area is thought to be the original homeland of the Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and southern Africa in waves between the 1st millennium BC and the 2nd millennium AD. Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the eighth most populous country in the world with a population of over 140 million. It is a regional power and it is also listed among the Next Eleven economies. The economy of Nigeria is one of the fastest growing in the world with the International Monetary Fund projecting a growth of 9% in 2008 and 8.3% in 2009.3456 Contents 1 History 1.1 Early History 1.2 The Colonial Era 1.3 Post Independence 1.4 Military Era 1.5 Recent History 2 Government and politics 2.1 Law 2.2 Foreign relations 2.3 Military of Nigeria 3 Geography 4 States and local government areas 4.1 Population of Nigeria's cities over 1,000,000 5 Environment 5.1 Environmental degradation 6 Economy 7 Demographics 7.1 Ethno-linguistic groups 7.1.1 Language 8 Culture 8.1 Literature 8.2 Music and film 8.3 Religion 8.4 Twins 8.5 Sport 8.6 Cuisine 8.7 Crime 9 Societal issues 9.1 Human rights 9.2 Strife and sectarian violence 9.3 Health issues 9.4 Happiness survey 10 See also 11 References 12 External links 13 See also History Main article: History of Nigeria See also: Nigerian military juntas of 1966-1979 and 1983-1998 and History of Nigeria before 1500. Early History The Nok people in central Nigeria produced terracotta sculptures that have been discovered by archaeologists.7 A Nok sculpture resident at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, portrays a sitting dignitary wearing a Shepherds Crook on the right arm, and a hinged flail on the left. These are symbols of authority associated with ancient Egyptian pharaohs, and the god Osiris, and suggests that an ancient Egyptian style of social structure, and perhaps religion, existed in the area of modern Nigeria during the late Pharonic period.8 In the northern part of the country, Kano and Katsina has recorded history which dates back to around AD 999. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa. The Yoruba people date their presence in the area of modern republics of Nigeria, Benin and Togo to about 8500 BC. The kingdoms of Ifẹ and Oyo in the western block of Nigeria became prominent about 700-900 and 1400 respectively. However, the Yoruba mythology believes that Ile-Ife is the source of the human race and that it predates any other civilization. Ifẹ produced the terra cotta and bronze heads, the Ọyá»? extended as far as modern Togo. Another prominent kingdom in south western Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well known city of Eko, later named Lagos by the Portuguese.9 In the Southeastern part of Nigeria the Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo people flourished from the controversial date of around the 10th century AD until 1911 AD. The Nri Kingdom was ruled by the Eze Nri. The Colonial Era Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to reach Nigeria, giving Lagos its present name after the Portuguese town of Lagos, in Algarve. Portuguese surnames remain very common in Nigeria. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885 British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900 the company's territory came under the control of the British government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On January 1, 1901 Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time. In 1914, the area was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the middle of the 20th century, the great wave for independence was sweeping across Africa. Post Independence On October 1, 1960, Nigeria gained its independence from the United Kingdom. The new republic incorporated a number of people with aspirations of their own sovereign nations. Newly independent Nigeria's government was a coalition of conservative parties: the Nigerian People's Congress NPC, a party dominated by Northerners and those of the Islamic faith, and the Igbo and Christian dominated National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons NCNC led by Nnamdi Azikiwe, who became Nigeria's maiden Governor-General in 1960. Forming the opposition was the comparatively liberal Action Group AG, which was largely dominated by Yorubas and led by Obafemi Awolowo.10 An imbalance was created in the polity by the result of the 1961 plebiscite. Southern Cameroon opted to join the Republic of Cameroon while northern Cameroon chose to remain in Nigeria. The northern part of the country was now far larger than the southern part. The nation parted with its British legacy in 1963 by declaring itself a Federal Republic, with Azikiwe as the first president. When elections came about in 1965, the AG was outmanoeuvred for control of Nigeria's Western Region by the Nigerian National Democratic Party, an amalgamation of conservative Yoruba elements backed heavily by the Federal Government amid dubious electoral circumstances. This left the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG in a weak progressive alliance.10 Map of Nigeria Map of Nigeria Military Era This disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led in 1966 to several back-to-back military coups. The first was in January and led by a collection of young leftists under Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu, it was partially successful - the coupists overthrew the embattled government but could not install their choice, jailed opposition leader Chief Obafemi Awolowo,11 General Johnson Aguiyi-ironsi, then head of the army was invited by the rump of the Balewa regime to take over the affairs of the country as head of state. This coup was counter-acted by another successful plot, supported primarily by Northern military officers and Northerners who favoured the NPC, it was engineered by Northern officers, which allowed Lt Colonel Yakubu Gowon to become head of state. This sequence of events led to an increase in ethnic tension and violence. The Northern coup, which was mostly motivated by ethnic and religious reasons was a bloodbath of both military officers and civilians, especially those of Igbo extraction. The violence against Igbos increased their desire for autonomy and protection from the military's wrath. By May 1967, the Eastern Region had declared itself an independent state called the Republic of Biafra under the leadership of Lt Colonel Emeka Ojukwu in line with the wishes of the people. The Nigerian Civil War began as the Nigerian Western and Northern side attacked Biafra South-eastern on July 6, 1967 at Garkem signalling the beginning of the 30 month war that ended on January 1970.12 Following the war, Nigeria became to an extent even more mired in ethnic strife, as the defeated southeast and indeed southern Nigeria was now conquered territory for the federal military regime, which changed heads of state twice as army officers staged a bloodless coup against Gowon and enthroned Murtala Mohammed; Olusegun Obansanjo succeeded the former after an assassination. During the oil boom of the 1970s, Nigeria joined OPEC and billions of dollars generated by production in the oil-rich Niger Delta flowed into the coffers of the Nigerian state. However, increasing corruption and graft at all levels of government squandered most of these earnings. The northern military clique benefited immensely from the oil boom to the detriment of the Nigerian people and economy. As oil revenues fuelled the rise of federal subventions to states and precariously to individuals, the Federal Government soon became the centre of political struggle and the centre became the threshold of power in the country. As oil production and revenue rose, the Nigerian government created a dangerous situation as it became increasingly dependent on oil revenues and the international commodity markets for budgetary and economic concerns eschewing economic stability. That spelled doom to federalism in Nigeria.13 Beginning in 1979, Nigerians participated in a brief return to democracy when Obasanjo transferred power to the civilian regime of Shehu Shagari. The Shagari government was viewed as corrupt and incompetent by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society, so when the regime was overthrown by the military coup of Mohammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's fraudulent re-election in 1984, it was generally viewed as a positive development by most of the population.14 Buhari promised major reforms but his government fared little better than its predecessor, and his regime was overthrown by yet another military coup in 1985.15 The new head of state, Ibrahim Babangida, promptly declared himself President and Commander in chief of the Armed Forces and the ruling Supreme Military Council and also set 1990 as the official deadline for a return to democratic governance. Babangida's tenure was marked by a flurry of political activity: he instituted the International Monetary Fund's Structural Adjustment Program SAP to aid in the repayment of the country's crushing international debt, which most federal revenue was dedicated to servicing. He also inflamed religious tensions in the nation and particularly the south by enrolling Nigeria in the Organization of the Islamic Conference,16 After Babangida survived an abortive coup, he pushed back the promised return to democracy to 1992. When free and fair elections were finally held on the 12th of June, 1993, Babangida declared that the results showing a presidential victory for Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola null and void, sparking mass civilian violence in protest which effectively shut down the country for weeks and forced Babangida to keep his shaky promise to relinquish office to a civilian run government.17 Babangida's regime is adjudged to be at the apogee of corruption in the history of the nation as it was during his time that corruption became officially diluted in Nigeria.18 Umaru Yar'Adua of the People's Democratic Party is the current president of Nigeria Umaru Yar'Adua of the People's Democratic Party is the current president of Nigeria Babangida's caretaker regime headed by Ernest Shonekan survived only until late 1993 when General Sani Abacha took power in another military coup. Abacha proved to be perhaps Nigeria's most brutal ruler and employed violence on a wide scale to suppress the continuing pandemic of civilian unrest. Money had been found in various western European countries banks traced to him. He avoided coup plots by bribing army generals. Several hundred millions dollars in accounts traced to him were unearthed in 1999.19 The regime would come to an end in 1998 when the dictator was found dead amid dubious circumstances. Abacha's death yielded an opportunity for return to civilian rule. Recent History Nigeria re-achieved democracy in 1999 when it elected Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba and former military head of state, as the new President ending almost thirty three-years of military rule between from 1966 until 1999 excluding the short-lived second republic between 1979-1983 by military dictators who seized power in coups d'état and counter-coups during the Nigerian military juntas of 1966-1979 and 1983-1998. Although the elections which brought Obasanjo to power in 1999 and again in 2003 were condemned as unfree and unfair, Nigeria has shown marked improvements in attempts to tackle government corruption and to hasten development. While Obasanjo showed willingness to fight corruption, he was accused by others of the same.who? Umaru Yar'Adua, of the People's Democratic Party, came into power in the general election of 2007 - an election that was witnessed and condemned by the international community as being massively flawed.20 Ethnic violence over the oil producing Niger Delta region see Conflict in the Niger Delta, interreligious relations and inadequate infrastructure are current issues in the country. Government and politics Main article: Politics of Nigeria See also: Government of Nigeria See also: Federal Ministries of Nigeria Nigeria is a Federal Republic modelled after the United States, with executive power exercised by the president and with overtones of the Westminster System model in the composition and management of the upper and lower houses of the bicameral legislature. The current president of Nigeria is Umaru Musa Yar'Adua who was elected in 2007. The president presides as both Chief of State and Head of Government and is elected by popular vote to a maximum of two four-year terms. The president's power is checked by a Senate and a House of Representatives, which are combined in a bicameral body called the National Assembly. The Senate is a 109-seat body with three members from each state and one from the capital region of Abuja; members are elected by popular vote to four-year terms. The House contains 360 seats and the number of seats per state is determined by population. Ethnocentricism, tribalism, sectarianism especially religious, and prebendalism have played a visible role in Nigerian politics both prior and subsequent to independence in 1960. Kin-selective altruism has made its way into Nigerian politics and has spurned various attempts by tribalists to concentrate Federal power to a particular region of their interests.21 Nationalism has also led to active secessionist movements such as MASSOB, Nationalist movements such as Oodua Peoples Congress, Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta and a civil war. Nigeria's three largest ethnic groups have maintained historical preeminence in Nigerian politics; competition amongst these three groups, the Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo, has fuelled corruption and graft.22 Due to the above issues, Nigeria's current political parties are pan-national and irreligious in character though this does not preclude the continuing preeminence of the dominant ethnicities.23 The major political parties at present include the ruling People's Democratic Party of Nigeria which maintains 223 seats in the House and 76 in the Senate 61.9% and 69.7% respectively and is led by the current President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua; the opposition All Nigeria People's Party under the leadership of Muhammadu Buhari has 96 House seats and 27 in the Senate 26.6% and 24.7%. There are also about twenty other minor opposition parties registered. The outgoing president, Olusegun Obasanjo, acknowledged fraud and other electoral lapses but said the result reflected opinion polls. In a national television address he added that if Nigerians did not like the victory of his handpicked successor they would have an opportunity to vote again in four years.24 Like in many other African societies, prebendalism and extremely excessive corruption continue to constitute major challenges to Nigeria, as vote rigging and other means of coercion are practised by all major parties in order to remain competitive. In 1983, it was adjudged by the policy institute at Kuru that only the 1959 and 1979 elections witnessed minimal rigging.25 Law There are four distinct systems of law in Nigeria: English Law which is derived from its colonial past with Britain; common law, a development of its post colonial independence; customary law which is derived from indigenous traditional norms and practice, including the dispute resolution meetings of pre-colonial Yorubaland secret societies; Sharia law, used only in the predominantly Muslim north of the country. It is an Islamic legal system which had been used long before the colonial administration in Nigeria but recently politicised and spearheaded in Zamfara in late 1999 and eleven other states followed suit. These states are Kano, Katsina, Niger, Bauchi, Borno, Kaduna, Gombe, Sokoto, Jigawa, Yobe, and Kebbi.26 The country has a judicial branch, the highest court of which is the Supreme Court of Nigeria. Foreign relations National Assembly complex in Abuja National Assembly complex in Abuja Main article: Foreign relations of Nigeria Upon gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria made the liberation and restoration of the dignity of Africa the centrepiece of its foreign policy and played a leading role in the fight against the apartheid regime in South Africa.27 One notable exception to the African focus of Nigeria's foreign policy was the close relationship the country enjoyed with Israel throughout the 1960s, with the latter country sponsoring and overseeing the construction of Nigeria's parliament buildings. 28 Nigeria's foreign policy was soon tested in the 1970s after the country emerged united from its own civil war and quickly committed itself to the liberation struggles going on in the Southern Africa sub-region. Though Nigeria never sent an expionary force in that struggle, it offered more than rhetoric to the African National Congress ANC by taking a committed tough line with regard to the racist regime and their incursions in southern Africa, in addition to exping large sums to aid anti-colonial struggles. Nigeria was also a founding member of the Organization for African Unity now the African Union, and has tremendous influence in West Africa and Africa on the whole. Nigeria has additionally founded regional cooperative efforts in West Africa, functioning as standard-bearer for ECOWAS and ECOMOG, economic and military organizations respectively. With this African-centred stance, Nigeria readily sent troops to the Congo at the behest of the United Nations shortly after independence and has maintained membership since that time; Nigeria also supported several Pan African and pro-self government causes in the 1970s, including garnering support for Angola's MPLA, SWAPO in Namibia, and aiding anti-colonial struggles in Mozambique, and Zimbabwe then Rhodesia military and economically. Nigeria retains membership in the Non-Aligned Movement, and in late November 2006 organized an Africa-South America Summit in Abuja to promote what some attendees termed South-South linkages on a variety of fronts.29 Nigeria is also a member of the International Criminal Court, and the Commonwealth of Nations, from which it was temporarily expelled in 1995 under the Abacha regime. Nigeria has remained a key player in the international oil industry since the 1970s, and maintains membership in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC which it joined in July, 1971. Its status as a major petroleum producer figures prominently in its sometimes vicissitudinous international relations with both developed countries, notably the United States and more recently China and developing countries, notably Ghana, Jamaica and Kenya.30 Millions of Nigerians have emigrated at times of economic hardship to Europe, North America and Australia among others. It is estimated that over a million Nigerians have emigrated to the United States and constitute the Nigerian American populace. Of such Diasporic communities include the Egbe Omo Yoruba society.31 Military of Nigeria Main article: Military of Nigeria Nigerian troops Nigerian troops The military in Nigeria have played a major role in the country's history since independence. Various juntas have seized control of the country and ruled it through most of its history. Its last period of rule ended in 1999 following the sudden death of dictator Sani Abacha in 1998. Taking advantage of its role of Africa's most populated country, Nigeria has repositioned its military as an African peacekeeping force. Since 1995, the Nigerian military through ECOMOG mandates have been deployed as peacekeepers in Liberia 1997, Ivory Coast 1997-1999, Sierra Leone 1997-1999,32 and presently in Sudan's Darfur region under an African Union mandate. Active duty personnel in the three Nigerian armed services total approximately 115,000. The Nigerian Army, the largest of the services, has about 99,000 personnel deployed in two mechanized infantry divisions, one armoured division, one composite division airborne and amphibious, the Lagos Garrison Command a division size unit, the Abuja-based Brigade of Guards and other regimental size units e.g. artillery brigade. It has demonstrated its capability to mobilize, deploy, and sustain battalions in support of peacekeeping operations in Liberia, former Yugoslavia, Angola, Rwanda, Somalia, and Sierra Leone. The Nigerian Navy 7,000 members is equipped with frigates, fast attack craft, corvettes, and coastal patrol boats. The Nigerian Air Force 9,000 members flies transport, trainer, helicopter, and fighter aircraft, many of which are currently non-operational, but there is an ongoing policy of reorganization, and the provision of a very professional armed forces with high capability. Nigeria also has pursued a policy of developing domestic training and military production capabilities. Nigeria has continued a strict policy of diversification in military procurement from various countries. After the imposition of sanctions by many Western nations, Nigeria turned to the People's Republic of China, Russia, North Korea, and India for the purchase of military equipment and training. Geography Main article: Geography of Nigeria Satellite image of Nigeria, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library Satellite image of Nigeria, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library Map of vegetation in Nigeria Map of vegetation in Nigeria Nigeria is located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and has a total area of 923,768 km² 356,669 mi²,33 making it the world's 32nd-largest country after Tanzania. It is comparable in size to Venezuela, and is about twice the size of California. It shares a 4047 km 2515-mile border with Benin 773 km, Niger 1497 km, Chad 87 km, Cameroon 1690 km, and has a coastline of at least 853 km.34 The highest point in Nigeria is Chappal Waddi at 2,419 m 7,936 feet. Nigeria has a varied landscape. From the Obudu Hills in the southeast through the beaches in the south, the rainforest, the Lagos estuary and savannah in the middle and southwest of the country and the Sahel to the encroaching Sahara in the extreme north. Nigeria's main rivers are the Niger and the Benue which converge and empty into the Niger Delta, the world's largest river deltas. Nigeria is also an important centre for biodiversity. It is widely believed that the areas surrounding Calabar, Cross River State, contain the world's largest diversity of butterflies. The drill monkey is only found in the wild in Southeast Nigeria and neighboring Cameroon. States and local government areas States of Nigeria States of Nigeria Main articles: States of Nigeria and Local Government Areas of Nigeria Nigeria is divided into thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory, which are further sub-divided into 774 Local Government Areas LGAs. The plethora of states, of which there were only three at independence, reflect the country's tumultuous history and the difficulties of managing such a heterogeneous national entity at all levels of government. Nigeria has six cities with a population of over 1 million people from largest to smallest: Lagos, Kano, Ibadan, Kaduna, Port Harcourt, and Benin City. Lagos is the largest city in sub-Saharan Africa, with a population of over 10 million in its urban area alone. See also: List of cities in Nigeria Population of Nigeria's cities over 1,000,000 City Population Lagos 7,937,932 Kano 3,848,885 Ibadan 3,078,400 Kaduna 1,652,844 Port Harcourt 1,320,214 Benin City 1,051,600 Maiduguri 1,044,497 Zaria 1,018,827 Environment Environmental degradation Nigeria's Delta region, home of the large oil industry, experiences serious oil spills and other environmental problems. See Environmental issues in the Niger Delta for more details, and Conflict in the Niger Delta about strife which has arisen in connection with those issues. Waste management including sewage treatment, the linked processes of deforestation and soil degradation, and climate change or global warming are the major environmental problems in Nigeria. Waste management presents problems in a mega city like Lagos and other major Nigerian cities which are linked with economic development, population growth and the inability of municipal councils to manage the resulting rise in industrial and domestic waste. Haphazard industrial planning, increased urbanization, poverty and lack of competence of the municipal government are seen as the major reasons for high levels of waste pollution in major Nigerian cities. Some of the 'solutions' have been disastrous to the environment, resulting in untreated waste being dumped in places where it can pollute waterways and groundwater.35 In terms of global warming, Africans contribute only about one metric ton of carbon dioxide per person per year. It is perceived by many climate change experts that food production and security in the northern sahel region of the country will suffer as semi-arid areas will have more dry periods in the future.36 Economy Two slightly differing Okpoho Manillas, an archaic form of Nigerian money. Two slightly differing Okpoho Manillas, an archaic form of Nigerian money. Main article: Economy of Nigeria Main article: Transport in Nigeria The currency unit of Nigeria is the Nigerian Naira. Years of military rule, corruption, and mismanagement have hampered economic activity and output in Nigeria and continue to do so, despite the restoration of democracy and subsequent economic reform. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit and the World Bank, Nigerian GDP at purchasing power parity was only at $170.7 billion as of FY 2005. The GDP per head is at $692.37 Petroleum plays a large role in the Nigerian economy, accounting for 40% of the GDP. It is the 12th largest producer of petroleum in the world and the 8th largest exporter, and has the 10th largest proven reserves. The country joined OPEC in 1971. However, due to crumbling infrastructure, corruption, and ongoing civil strife in the Niger Delta, its main oil producing region, oil production and export is far from 100% capacity. Mineral resources that are present in Nigeria but not yet fully exploited are coal and tin. Other natural resources in the country include iron ore, limestone, niobium, lead, zinc, and arable land.38 Despite huge deposits of these natural resources, the mining industry in Nigeria is almost non-existent. About 60% of Nigerians are employed in the agricultural sector. Agriculture used to be the principal foreign exchange earner of Nigeria. Perhaps, one of the most daunting ramifications of the discovery of oil was the decline of agricultural sector. So extensive was this neglect that Nigeria, which was a net food exporter in the 1960s grew 98% of his own food, now must import much of the same cash crops it was formerly famous for as the biggest exporter. Agricultural products include groundnuts, palm oil, cocoa, coconut, citrus fruits, maize, pearl millet, cassava, yams and sugar cane. It also has a booming leather and textile industry, with industries located in Kano, Abeokuta, Onitsha, and Lagos. Like many Third World nations, Nigeria accumulated a significant foreign debt. Many of the projects financed by these debts were inefficient, bedeviled by corruption, or failed to live up to expectations. Eventually, Nigeria defaulted on its principal debt repayments as arrears and penalty interest accumulated and increased the size of the debt. However, after a long campaign by the Nigeria authorities, in October 2005 Nigeria and its Paris Club crors reached an agreement that reduced Nigeria's debt by approximately 60%. Nigeria used part of its oil profits to pay the residual 40%, freeing up at least $1.15 billion annually for poverty reduction programmes. As of April 2006, Nigeria became the first African Country to fully pay off its debt estimated $30 billion owed to the Paris Club. Nigeria also has significant production and manufacturing facilities such as factories for the French car manufacturer Peugeot as well as for the English truck manufacturer Bedford, now a subsidiary of General Motors. Nigeria also manufactures T-shirts and processed food. Nigeria has a National Space Research and Development Agency. Demographics Main article: Demographics of Nigeria Population density in Nigeria Population density in Nigeria Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa but exactly how populous is a subject of speculation. The United Nations estimates that the population in 2004 was at 131,530,000,39 with the population distributed as 48.3% Urban and 51.7% rural and population density at 139 people per square km. National census results in the past few decades have been disputed. The results of the most recent census by the Government of Nigeria have been released 29 December 2006. The census gave a population of 140,003,542. The only breakdown available was Total: 140,003,542 Men: 71,709,859 Women: 68,293,083 According to the United Nations, Nigeria has been undergoing explosive population growth and one of the highest growth and fertility rates in the world. By their projections, Nigeria will be one of the countries in the world that will account for most of the world's total population increase by 2050.40 According to current data, one out of every four Africans is Nigerian.41 Presently, Nigeria is the eighth most populous country in the world, and even conservative estimates conclude that more than 20% of the world's black population lives in Nigeria. 2006 estimates claim 42.3% of the population is between 0-14 years of age, while 54.6% is between 15-65; the birth rate is significantly higher than the death rate, at 40.4 and 16.9 per 1000 people respectively.42 Health, health care, and general living conditions in Nigeria are poor. Life expectancy is 47 years average male/female and just over half the population has access to potable water and appropriate sanitation; the percentage is of children under five has gone up rather than down between 1990 and 2003 and infant mortality is 97.1 deaths per 1000 live births.42 HIV/AIDS rate in Nigeria is much lower compared to the other African nations such as Kenya or South Africa whose prevalence percentage rates are in the double digits. Nigeria, like many developing countries, also suffers from a polio crisis as well as periodic outbreaks of cholera, malaria, and sleeping sickness. As of 2004, there has been a vaccination drive, spearheaded by the W.H.O., to combat polio and malaria that has been met with controversy in some regions.43 Education is also in a state of neglect, though after the oil boom on the oil price in the early 1970s, tertiary education was improved so it would reach every subregion of Nigeria. Education is provided free by the government, but the attendance rate for secondary education is only 29% average male 32%/female 27%. The education system has been described as dysfunctional largely due to decaying institutional infrastructure. 68% of the population is literate, and the rate for men 75.7% is higher than that for women 60.6%.42 See also: Education in Nigeria See also: List of Nigerian universities Ethno-linguistic groups Linguistic map of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Benin Linguistic map of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Benin Nigeria has more than 250 ethnic groups, with varying languages and customs, creating a country of rich ethnic diversity. The largest ethnic groups are the Fulani/Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, accounting for 68% of population, while the Edo, Ijaw 10%, Kanuri, Ibibio, Ebira Nupe and Tiv comprise 27%; other minorities make up the remaining 7 percent.44 The middle belt of Nigeria is known for its diversity of ethnic groups, including the Pyem, Goemai, and Kofyar. There are small minorities of British, Americans, East Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Syrian, Lebanese and refugees and immigrants from other West African or East African nations. These minorities mostly reside in major cities such as Lagos and Abuja, or in the Niger Delta as employees for the major oil companies. A number of Cubans settled Nigeria as political refugees following the Cuban Revolution. A number of them include Afro-Cubans and mixed-raced Cubans.citation needed In the middle of the nineteenth century, a number of ex-slaves of Afro-Cuban and Afro-Brazilian descent45 and emigrants from Sierra Leone established communities in Lagos, Ibadan and other regions of Nigeria. Many ex-slaves came to Nigeria following the emancipation of slaves in Latin America. Many of the immigrants, sometimes called Saros immigrants from Sierra Leone and Amaro ex-slaves from Brazil46 later became prominent merchants and missionaries in Lagos and Abeokuta. Language Main article: Languages of Nigeria The number of languages currently estimated and catalogued in Nigeria is 521. This number includes 510 living languages, two second languages without native speakers and 9 extinct languages. In some areas of Nigeria, ethnic groups speak more than one language. The official language of Nigeria, English, was chosen to facilitate the cultural and linguistic unity of the country. The choice of English as the official language was partially related to the fact that a part of Nigerian population spoke English as a result of British colonization that ended in 1960. The major languages spoken in Nigeria represent three major families of African languages - the majority are Niger-Congo languages, such as Yoruba, Ibo, the Hausa language is Afro-Asiatic; and Kanuri, spoken in the northeast, primarily Borno State, is a member of the Nilo-Saharan family. Even though most ethnic groups prefer to communicate in their own languages, English, being the official language, is widely used for education, business transactions and for official purposes. English as a first language, however, remains an exclusive preserve of a small minority of the country's urban elite, and is not spoken at all in some rural areas. With the majority of Nigeria's populace in the rural areas, the major languages of communication in the country remain indigenous languages. Some of the largest of these, notably Yoruba and Ibo, have derived standardized languages from a number of different dialects and are widely spoken by those ethnic groups. Hausa is a lingua franca throughout much of West Africa, and serves this function in Northern Nigeria as well, particularly amongst the Muslim population. Nigerian Pidgin English, often known simply as 'Pidgin' or 'Broken' Broken English, is also as a popular lingua franca, though with varying regional influences on dialect and slang.The pidgin English or Nigerian English is widely spoken within the Niger Delta Regions, predominately in Warri,Sapele, Port-Harcourt, Agenebode, Benin City etc. The Yoruba language has the most varied forms and dialects. This variation is usually based on the different towns or as it were Kingdoms that existed before the advent of Europeans. They are as diverse as the number of city states that there are. Examples are Awori, Ondo/Ekiti, Egba/Yewa, Oyo/Ibadan, Ijebu, Ijesa/Ife, Ilorin, Kabba/Okun. Culture Main article: Culture of Nigeria Literature See also: Nigerian literature Nigeria has a rich literary history, and Nigerians have authored many influential works of post-colonial literature in the English language. Nigeria's best-known writers are Wole Soyinka, the first African Nobel Laureate in Literature and Chinua Achebe, the legendary writer best known for the novel, Things Fall Apart and his controversial critique of Joseph Conrad. Other Nigerian writers and poets who are well known on the international stage include John Pepper Clark, Ben Okri, Buchi Emecheta, Helon Habila, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, and Ken Saro Wiwa who was executed in 1995 by the military regime. Nigeria has the second largest newspaper market in Africa after Egypt with an estimated circulation of several million copies daily in 2003,4748 Music and film Femi Kuti, son of Fela Kuti, is one of the major performers of modern Afrobeat music Femi Kuti, son of Fela Kuti, is one of the major performers of modern Afrobeat music See also: Music of Nigeria and Cinema of Nigeria Nigeria naija has been called the heart of African music because of its role in the development of West African highlife and palm-wine music, which fuses native rhythms with techniques imported from the Congo, Brazil, Cuba and elsewhere. Nigerian music includes many kinds of folk and popular music, some of which are known worldwide. Styles of folk music are related to the multitudes of ethnic groups in the country, each with their own techniques, instruments and songs. As a result, there are many different types of music that come from Nigeria. Many late 20th century musicians such as Fela Kuti have famously fused cultural elements of various indigenous music with American Jazz and Soul to form Afrobeat music.49 JuJu music which is percussion music fused with traditional music from the Yoruba nation and made famous by King Sunny Adé, is also from Nigeria. There is also fuji music, a Yoruba percussion style, created and popularized by the one and only Mr. Fuji, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister. There is a budding hip hop movement in Nigeria. Kennis Music, the self proclaimed No 1 Record Label in Africa and one of Nigeria's biggest record labels, has a roster almost entirely dominated by hip hop artists. Some famous musicians that come from Nigeria are Fela Kuti, Adewale Ayuba, Ezebuiro Obinna, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister, King Sunny Adé, Ebenezer Obey, Femi Kuti, Lagbaja, Dr. Alban, Sade Aduand Tuface Idibia. The Nigerian film industry is known as Nollywood. Many of the film studios are based in Lagos and Abuja and the industry is now a very lucrative income for these cities. Religion Abuja National Mosque Abuja National Mosque Main article: Religion in Nigeria Nigeria has a variety of religions which tend to vary regionally. This situation accentuates regional and ethnic distinctions and has often been seen as a source of sectarian conflict amongst the population.50 The main religions are Islam see also Islam in Nigeria, Christianity, Yoruba Orisha or Orisa veneration and Ifa. Christianity is concentrated in the southeast portion of the country while Islam dominates in the north of the country. The majority of Nigerian Muslims are Sunni, but a significant Shia minority exists see Shia in Nigeria. Some northern states have incorporated Sharia law into their previously secular legal systems, provoking controversy.51Kano state of Nigeria has sought to make Sharia law superior to the constitution.52 Across Yorubaland western Nigeria, Benin, Togo, many people are adherents to Yorubo/Irunmole spirituality with its philosophy of divine destiny that all can become Orisha ori, spiritual head; sha, is chosen: to be one with Olodumare oni odu, the God source of all energy; ma re, enlighthens / triumphs. Other minority religious and spiritual groups in Nigeria include Hinduism,53 Judaism, The Bahá'à Faith, and Chrislam a syncretic faith melding elements of Christianity and Islam.54 Further, Nigeria has become an African hub for the Grail Movement,55 the Rosicrucian order AMORC,56 and the Hare Krishnas.57 Twins Nigeria has the highest rate of twin births in the world compared to any other country. The Yoruba ethnic group in particular have the highest ratio of twin births in Nigeria and across the world compared to single births. Twins are very important in Yoruba culture and they are often known for tending to give special names to each twin.citation needed The first of the twins to be born is traditionally named Taiyewo or Tayewo, which means 'the first to taste the world', this is often shortened to Taiwo, Taiye or Taye. Kehinde, sometimes shortened to Kenny, is the name of the last born twin. Kehinde or Kenny is sometimes also referred to as Kehindegbegbon which is short for Omokehindegbegbon and means, 'the child that came last gets the eldest'. The reason for this is because the Yoruba traditionally say that Kehinde, is the true eldest of the twins despite being the last to be born. It is said that in the womb at the time of birth, Kehinde sends Taiyewo on an errand to check whether the outside world is good or not, and in Yoruba culture sending someone on an errand tends to be a prerogative of one's elders. However, the first born twin is also sometimes referred to as Taiyelolu or Tayelolu which is short for Omotaiyelolu and means, 'the child that came to taste life excels'. Sport Main article: Football in Nigeria Like many nations, football is Nigeria's national sport. There is also a local Premier League of football. Nigeria's national football team, known as the Super Eagles, has made the World Cup on three occasions 1994, 1998, and 2002, won the African Cup of Nations in 1980 and 1994, and also hosted the Junior World Cup. They won the gold medal for football in the 1996 Summer Olympics in which they beat Argentina and have reached the finals of the U-20 World Championship in 2005. In September 2007, Nigeria won the U-17 World cup for the third time, becoming the only African nation to have achieved that feat and the second nation after Brazil to do so. Nigeria had previously won the very first U-17 tournament in 1985 China '85, 1993 Japan '93 and in 2007 Korea '07. The nation's cadet team to Japan '93, produced some of the world's finest players notably Nwankwo Kanu, a two-time African Footballer of the year who won the European Champions League with Ajax Amsterdam and later played with Inter Milan Italy, Arsenal FC London, UK, West Bromwich Albion UK and Portsmouth F.C. UK. Other players that graduated from the Junior teams are Celestine Babayaro of Newcastle United, UK, Wilson Oruma of Marseille, France. According to the official September 2007 FIFA World Rankings, Nigeria is currently First-ranked football nation in Africa and the 19th highest in the world. Nigeria is also involved in other sports such as basketball58 and track and field. Boxing is also an important sport in Nigeria; currently, Samuel Peter is the World Heavyweight Champion. Cuisine Main article: Cuisine of Nigeria Nigerian cuisine, like West African cuisine in general, is known for its richness and variety. Many different spices, herbs and flavourings are used in conjunction with palm oil or groundnut oil to create deeply-flavoured sauces and soups often made very hot with chilli peppers. Nigerian feasts are colourful and lavish, while aromatic market and roadside snacks cooked on barbecues or fried in oil are plentiful and varied.59 Crime Main article: Advance fee fraud A type of advance fee fraud known as 419 and the Nigerian scam is a form of confidence trick practiced by organized crime that is commonly associated with Nigeria, though it is now used in other places. The confidence man persuades the target to advance relatively small sums of money the advance fee in the hope of realizing a much larger gain usually touted as millions.60 In 2003, the Nigerian Economic and Financial Crimes Commission or EFCC was created to combat this and other forms of organized financial crime.61 It has succeeded in bringing several 419 crime bosses to justice and in some cases has been able to return the stolen money to victims.62 Societal issues Despite its vast government revenue from the mining of petroleum, Nigeria is beset by a number of societal problems due primarily to a history of inept governance. Some of these problems are listed below. Human rights Main article: Human rights in Nigeria In its 2005 report on human rights practices around the world, the U.S. Department of State found that Nigeria's human rights record was poor. According to the report, Nigerian government officials and police were responsible for serious abuses, including politically motivated killings; the use of lethal force against suspected criminals and hostage-seizing militants in the Niger Delta; beatings and even torture of suspects, detainees, and convicts; and extortion of civilians. Other abuses included violence, discrimination, and genital mutilation directed against women, child labor and prostitution, and human trafficking.63 Compounding these abuses was the application of Islamic law sharia in 12 northern states. Sentences imposed under sharia included amputations, stonings, and canings, but no death sentences were carried out. In addition, the U.S. Department of State noted restrictions on the freedoms of speech, press, assembly, religion, movement, and privacy.63 Strife and sectarian violence See also: Conflict in the Niger Delta Due to its multitude of diverse, sometimes competing ethno-linguistic groups, Nigeria has been beset since prior to independence with sectarian tensions and violence. This is particularly true in the oil-producing Niger Delta region, where both state and civilian forces employ varying methods of coercion in attempts gain control over regional petroleum resources. The civilian population, and especially certain ethnic groups like the Ogoni, have experienced severe environmental degradation due to petroleum extraction, but when these groups have attempted to protest these injustices, they have been met with repressive measures by Nigerian government and military forces. As a result, strife and deterioration in this region continues as of 2006. There are also significant tensions on a national scale, especially between the primarily Muslim, highly conservative northern population and the Christian population from the Southern part of the country. Since the end of the civil war in 1970, ethnic and religious violence has continued. Violence between Muslims and Christians occurred until early 2004. There has subsequently been a period of relative harmony since the Federal Government introduced tough new measures against religious violence in all affected parts of the country. In 2002, organizers of the Miss World Pageant announced that they would move the pageant from the Nigerian capital, Abuja, to London in the wake of violent protests in the Northern part of the country that left more than 100 people dead and over 500 injured. The rioting erupted after a newspaper suggested Muhammad would have approved of the Miss World beauty contest for personal reasons. Muslim rioters in Kaduna killed an estimated 105 men, women, and children with a further 521 injured taken to hospital. Angry mobs in the mainly Muslim city 600 kilometres 375 miles northeast of Lagos burnt churches and rampaged through the streets, stabbing, bludgeoning, and burning bystanders to death.64 Health issues See also: Health care in Nigeria Nigeria has been reorganizing its health system since the Bamako Initiative of 1987 formally promoted community-based methods of increasing accessibility of drugs and health care services to the population, in part by implementing user fees.65 The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-based healthcare reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost.66 The state of health care in Nigeria has been worsened by a shortage of doctors as a consequence of severe 'brain drain'. Many Nigerian doctors have emigrated to North America and Europe. In 1995, 21,000 Nigerian doctors were practising in the US alone, about the same as the number of doctors then in the Nigerian public service. Retaining these expensively-trained professionals has been identified as an urgent goal.67 Happiness survey In 2003, Nigerians were reported to be the happiest people in a scientific survey carried out in 65 nations in 1999-2001.68 The research was reported by one of the world's top science magazines, New Scientist, and was picked up by a number of news outlets. See Nigeria tops happiness survey. The report considered that the country's family life and culture were more important than its problems and material wealth in determining happiness. See also Africa portal References ^ Country profile: Nigeria, BBC News 2008-04-30. Retrieved on 2008-08-05. ^ McIntosh, Susan Keech, Current directions in west African prehistory. Palo Alto, Calif.: Annual Reviews Inc., 1981. 215-258 p.: ill. ^ IMF Survey: Nigeria Needs Sustained Reforms to Build on Success ^ allAfrica.com: Africa: IMF Forecasts 9 Percent Growth for Nigeria Page 1 of 1 ^ The Punch: IMF predicts 9% GDP growth rate for Nigeria ^ : Welcome to Independent Newspapers Limited - A voice of your own ^ Shaw, Thurstan, Nigeria: Its Archaeology and early history. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007. ^ artsmia.org : viewer ^ The Slave Trade ^ a b Udofia , Nigerian Political Parties: Their Role in Modernizing the political System, 1920-1966, Journal of Black Studies, June 1981. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007, pp 437-447. ^ SUNDAY ORISAKWE, 1966 Coup Plotters Planned To Hand Over Power To Awo, Says Ofeimun. The Nigerian Gurdian, May 5, 2007. ^ Background Paper on Nigeria and Biafra, Declassified Documents reference System ^ Watts Michael, State, Oil and Agriculture in Nigeria, Berkeley, 1987. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007. ^ Nigeria, Military Faces Daunting Challenges, AP Press International, March 3, 1984. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007. ^ Nigeria stays calms as leader toppled in bloodless coup, The Globe and Mail, August, 28 1985. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007. ^ Michael Holman, Nigeria, Politics; Religious Differences Intensify, Financial Times, February 24, 1986. ^ Bilski Andrew, Broken Promises Maclean, September 6, 1993. ^ Diamond, larry, Kirk-Greene Anthoiny, Oyeleye Oyediran, Transition without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida. ^ Nigerian Lawyer: Abacha accounts apparently in Switzerland, Luxembourg, France, and Germany, AP press, January 10, 2000. ^ Final Report. EU Election Observation Mission Nigeria 2007. Retrieved on 2008-01-24. ^ Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, who served briefly as Nigeria's second president, devoted his government to combating this phenomenon with Decree 33, which banned 81 political parties and 26 tribal and cultural organizations in the name of national unity. See Osaghae, The Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, Indiana University Press, 1998, p. 57. ISBN 0253211972. ^ See, for instance, Rashid, Khadijat K. Ethnicity and Sub-Nationalism in Nigeria: Movement for a Mid-West State/Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria/Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria, in African Studies Review, September, 2003. ^ Ibid. See also, Lancia, Nicole. Ethnic Politics in Nigeria: The Realities of Regionalism in Capitol Scholar. ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,2064068,00.html ^ Jibrin Ibrahim, Legislation and the Electoral Process: The Third Term Agenda and the Future of Nigerian Democracy. Paper for Centre for Democracy and Development CDD Nigeria Roundtable, 2006. ^ Sharia Law in the Northern States of Nigeria: To Implement or Not to Implement, the Constitutionality is the Question ^ Collins Edomaruse, how Obasanjo cut UK, US to size, by Andrew Young, This Day Nigeria - , July 20, 2006. ^ Golda. Elinor Burkett, pg 202 ^ See, e.g., the African Union website, at http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Conferences/Past/2006/November/SummitASA/summit.htm ^ Shaw Timothy, The State of Nigeria: Oil Prices Power Bases and Foreign Policy, Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol 18, no 2, 1984. ^ Egbe Omo Yoruba, National Association Of Yoruba descendants in North America, yorubanation.org, 19 May 2007. ^ Ed O'Loughlin, Nigerians outshine the British brass, The Independent London, March 11, 1998. ^ Rank Order - Area ^ CIA World Factbook. Note that coastlines, and borders based on rivers or natural features, are fractals, the length of which is imprecise and depends on the measurement convention adopted. ^ D. N. Ogbonna, I. K. E. Ekweozor, F. U. Igwe 2002. Waste Management: A Tool for Environmental Protection in Nigeria. A Journal of the Human Environment, 31, 1 February 2002. ^ Fields, Scott 2005. Continental Divide: Why Africa's Climate Change Burden Is Greater. Environmental Health Perspectives 113 8, August 2005. Retrieved 15 May 2007. ^ Economist.com | Country Briefings: Nigeria at www.economist.com ^ http://www.msmd.gov.ng/publications/publications.asp . ^ World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database at esa.un.org ^ http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/pop918.doc.htm ^ What do you think of Nigeria?, BBC News 2006-06-16. Retrieved on 2008-08-05. ^ a b c United States Library of Congress - Federal Research Division. Country Profile-Nigeria 2006. ^ Nigerian state thwarts polio push, BBC News March 22, 2004. Retrieved on 2006-09-07. ^ Geographica: The complete Atlas of the world, Nigeria, Random House, 2002. ^ Toyin Falola; The History of Nigeria, Greenwood Press, 1999. pp 41,47 ^ Abiola Dosumu Elegbede-Fernandez, Lagos A Legacy of Honour. Spectrum Books, 1992.pp 19,27 ^ http://www.uam.es/otroscentros/medina/egypt/egypolsoc.html ^ Nigeria - Media at www.nationsencyclopedia.com ^ Adams, S. Black President: The Art and Legacy of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti: New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, New York; This Is Lagos: Yabis Night, Music and Fela: Skoto Gallery, New York, New York Exhibit. African Arts v. 37 no. 1 Spring 2004 Country ^ Osita Agbu; Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria, Nordic African Institute, 2004, pp 6. ^ Owobi Angrew, Tiptoeing Through A Constitutional Minefield: The Great Sharia Controversy in Nigeria, Journal Of African law, Vol 48, No 2, 2002. ^ Kano Seeks Supremacy of Sharia Over Constitution, wwrn.org, Accessed May 19, 2007. ^ Adherents by Location, Adherents.com, Accessed May 19, 2007. ^ In African, Islam and Christianity are growing - and blending, csmonitor.com, Accessed May 19, 2007. ^ Grail Movement - Nigeria, grailmovementnigeria.org, Accessed May 19, 2007. ^ Region Three covers Nigeria, amorc.org.uk, Accessed May 19, 2007. ^ Day Hare Krishna Came to Town, wwrn.org, Accessed May 19, 2007. ^ AFRICABASKET, Nigerian Basketball, Africabasket.com, Accessed April 29, 2007. ^ H.O. Anthonio M. Isoun: Nigerian Cookbook. Macmillan, Lagos, 1982. ^ www.haverford.edu/pols/faculty/glickman/Articles/CJAS_Text_final_1-35.pdf ^ www.efccnigeria.org ^ Economic and Financial Crimes Commission - EFCC ^ a b Text used in this cited section originally came from: Nigeria profile from the Library of Congress Country Studies project. ^ James Astill, The truth behind the Miss World riots: The unrest in Nigeria was more about old grudges than a beauty contest - and it has left deep wounds, The Guardian London, November 30, 2002 ^ User fees for health: a background. Retrieved on 2006-12-28. ^ Effect of the Bamako-Initiative drug revolving fund on availability and rational use of essential drugs in primary health care facilities in south-east Nigeria. Retrieved on 2006-12-28. ^ Mike Chinedu Anekwe: Brain Drain: The Nigerian Experience. Niger Delta Congress website accessed 8 April 2007. ^ BBC: Nigeria tops happiness survey, Thursday, 2 October, 2003. Website accessed 26 March 2007. 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