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07-SEPTEMBER-2008 03:17:44 - Pharmacology A variety of topics involved with pharmacology, including neuropharmacology, renal pharmacology, human metabolism, intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation. A variety of topics involved with pharmacology, including neuropharmacology, renal pharmacology, human metabolism, intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation. Pharmacology from the Greek φάÏ?μακον, pharmakon, drug; and λόγος, logos, study is the study of how drugs interact with living organisms to produce a change in function.1 If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy, which is the name used for a profession, though in common usage the two terms are confused at times. Pharmacology deals with how drugs interact within biological systems to affect function, while pharmacy is a medical science concerned with the safe and effective use of medicines. The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to the Middle Ages in Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, Peter of Spain's Commentary on Isaac, and John of St Amand's Commentary on the Antedotary of Nicholas.2 Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period.3 Before the second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of drugs such as morphine, quinine and digitalis were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues.4 The first pharmacology department was set up by Buchheim in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects.3 Early pharmacologists focused on natural substances, mainly plant extracts. Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a new biomedical science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts.5 Contents 1 Divisions 2 Scientific background 3 Medicine development and safety testing 4 Drug legislation and safety 5 Education 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 External links Divisions Pharmacology as a chemical science is practiced by pharmacologists. Subdisciplines include clinical pharmacology - the medical field of medication effects on humans neuro- and psychopharmacology effects of medication on behavior and nervous system functioning, pharmacogenetics clinical testing of genetic variation that gives rise to differing response to drugs pharmacogenomics application of genomic technologies to new drug discovery and further characterization of older drugs pharmacoepidemiology study of effects of drugs in large numbers of people toxicology study of harmful effects of drugs theoretical pharmacology posology - how medicines are dosed pharmacognosy - deriving medicines from plants Scientific background The study of chemicals requires intimate knowledge of the biological system affected. With the knowledge of cell biology and biochemistry increasing, the field of pharmacology has also changed substantially. It has become possible, through molecular analysis of receptors, to design chemicals that act on specific cellular signaling or metabolic pathways by affecting sites directly on cell-surface receptors which modulate and mediate cellular signaling pathways controlling cellular function. A chemical has, from the pharmacological point-of-view, various properties. Pharmacokinetics describes the effect of the body on the chemical e.g. half-life and volume of distribution, and pharmacodynamics describes the chemical's effect on the body desired or toxic. When describing the pharmacokinetic properties of a chemical, pharmacologists are often interested in ADME: Absorption - How is the medication absorbed through the skin, the intestine, the oral mucosa? Distribution - How does it spread through the organism? Metabolism - Is the medication converted chemically inside the body, and into which substances. Are these active? Could they be toxic? Excretion - How is the medication eliminated through the bile, urine, breath, skin? Medication is said to have a narrow or wide therapeutic index or therapeutic window. This describes the ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A compound with a narrow therapeutic index close to one exerts its desired effect at a dose close to its toxic dose. A compound with a wide therapeutic index greater than five exerts its desired effect at a dose substantially below its toxic dose. Those with a narrow margin are more difficult to dose and administer, and may require therapeutic drug monitoring examples are warfarin, some antiepileptics, aminoglycoside antibiotics. Most anti-cancer drugs have a narrow therapeutic margin: toxic side-effects are almost always encountered at doses used to kill tumors. Medicine development and safety testing Development of medication is a vital concern to medicine, but also has strong economical and political implications. To protect the consumer and prevent abuse, many governments regulate the manufacture, sale, and administration of medication. In the United States, the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the Food and Drug Administration and they enforce standards set by the United States Pharmacopoeia. In the European Union, the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the EMEA and they enforce standards set by the European Pharmacopoeia. If the structure of a medicine is altered slightly, this will slightly alter the medicine's properties. This means when a useful activity has been identified, chemists will make many similar compounds called analogues, to attempt and maximise the beneficial effects. This development phase can take up to 3 years and is expensive.6 These new analogues need to be developed. It needs to be determined how safe the medicine is for human consumption, its stability in the human body and the best form for dispensing, like tablet or aerosol. After extensive testing, which can take up to 6 years the new medicine is ready for marketing and selling.6 As a result of the long time required to develop analogues and test a new medicine and the fact that of every 5000 potential new medicines typically only one will ever reach the open market, this is an expensive way of doing things, costing millions of dollars. To recoup this outlay pharmaceutical companies may do a number of things:6 Carefully research the demand for their potential new product before spending an outlay of company funds.6 Obtain a patent on the new medicine preventing other companies from producing that medicine for a certain allocation of time.6 Drug legislation and safety In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration FDA is responsible for creating guidelines for the approval and use of drugs. The FDA requires that all approved drugs fulfill two requirements: The drug must be found to be effective against the disease for which it is seeking approval. The drug must meet safety criteria by being subject to extensive animal and controlled human testing. Gaining FDA approval usually takes several years to attain. Testing done on animals must be extensive and must include several species to help in the evaluation of both the effectiveness and toxicity of the drug. The dosage of any drug approved for use is intended to fall within a range in which the drug produces a therapeutic effect or desired outcome.1 The safety and effectiveness of prescription drugs in the U.S. is regulated by the federal Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987. The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency MHRA has a similar role in the UK. Education The study of pharmacology is offered in many universities worldwide. Again, pharmacology education programs differ from pharmacy programs. Students of pharmacology are trained as researchers, studying the effects of substances in order to better understand the mechanisms which might lead to new drug discoveries for example. Whereas a pharmacy student will eventually work in a pharmacy dispensing medications or some other position focused on the patient, pharmacologist will typically work within a laboratory setting. Some higher educational institutions combine pharmacology and toxicology into a single program as does Michigan State University. Michigan State University offers PhD training in Pharmacology Toxicology with an optional Environmental Toxicology specialization. They also offer a Professional Science Masters in Integrative Pharmacology. See also Pharmacy and Pharmacology portal Certain safety factor Cosmeceuticals Crude drugs Drug design Drug Discovery Hit to Lead Enzyme inhibitors Galenic formulation Herbalism International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology List of dosage abbreviations List of withdrawn drugs Medicare Part D - the new prescription drug plan in the U.S. Medication Medicinal chemistry Neuropharmacology - The Molecular and Behavior study of Disease and Drugs in the Nervous System Neuropsychopharmacology - The detailed comprehensive study of mind, brain and drugs. Nicholas Culpeper - 17th century English Physician who translated and used 'pharmacological texts'. Pharmaceutical company Pharmacognosy Pharmacopoeia Pharmacotherapy Pharmakos Placebo origins of technical term Prescription drug Prescription Drug Marketing Act PDMA Psychopharmacology - medication for mental conditions Traditional Chinese Medicine Footnotes ^ a b Nagle, Hinter; Barbara Nagle 2005. Pharmacology: An Introduction. Boston: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-312275-0. ^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly 2000, Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century, Clinical Pharmacology Therapeutics 67 5, p. 447-450 448-449. ^ a b H P Rang. 2006 The receptor concept: pharmacology's big idea. Br J Pharmacol. 147 Suppl: S9-S16. ^ Andreas-Holger M., Cay-Rüdiger P. and R. F. Halliwell 2002, The emergence of the drug receptor theory. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 1, 637-641 ^ Rang, H.P.; M.M. Dale, J.M. Ritter, R.J. Flower 2007. Pharmacology. China: Elsevier. ISBN 0-443-06911-5. ^ a b c d e Newton, David; Alasdair Thorpe, Chris Otter 2004. Revise A2 Chemistry. Heinemann Educational Publishers, page 1. ISBN 0-435-58347-6. External links Pharmaceutical Business Review. Pharmaceutical company profiles at NNDB. International Conference on Harmonisation. US Pharmacopeia. Medicine updates. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. IUPHAR Committee on Receptor Nomenclature and Drug Classification. v d e Medication Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics ADME: Absorption - Distribution - Metabolism - Excretion Clearance Loading dose - Volume of distribution Initial - Rate of infusion Compartment - Bioequivalence - Bioavailability Pharmacodynamics Toxicity Neurotoxicology - Dose-response relationship Efficacy, Potency Other fields pharmacogenetics - pharmacogenomics - Neuropsychopharmacology Neuropharmacology, Psychopharmacology Agonist: Inverse agonist Antagonist: Competitive antagonist Physiological agonism and antagonism v d e Chemistry Analytical chemistry Biochemistry Bioinorganic chemistry Bioorganic chemistry Chemical biology Chemistry education Click chemistry Cluster chemistry Computational chemistry Electrochemistry Environmental chemistry Green chemistry Inorganic chemistry Materials science Medicinal chemistry Nuclear chemistry Organic chemistry Organometallic chemistry Pharmacy Physical chemistry Photochemistry Polymer chemistry Solid-state chemistry Supramolecular chemistry Theoretical chemistry Thermochemistry Wet chemistry List of biomolecules List of inorganic compounds List of organic compounds Periodic table v d e Major fields of technology Applied science Artificial intelligence · Ceramic engineering · Computing technology · Electronics · Energy · Energy storage · Engineering physics · Environmental technology · Fisheries science · Materials science and engineering · Microtechnology · Nanotechnology · Nuclear technology · Optics · Zoography Information Communication · Graphics · Music technology · Speech recognition · Visual technology Industry Construction · Financial engineering · Manufacturing · Machinery · Mining · Business informatics Military Ammunition · Bombs · Guns · Military technology and equipment · Naval engineering Domestic Educational technology · Domestic appliances · Domestic technology · Food technology Engineering Aerospace · Agricultural · Architectural · Audio · Automotive · Biological · Biochemical · Biomedical · Broadcast · Ceramic · Chemical · Civil · Computer · Construction · Cryogenic · Electrical · Electronic · Environmental · Food · Industrial · Materials · Mechanical · Mechatronics · Metallurgical · Mining · Naval · Network · Nuclear · Optical · Petroleum · Radio Frequency · Software · Structural · Systems · Technician · Textile · Tissue · Transport Health and safety Biomedical engineering · Bioinformatics · Biotechnology · Cheminformatics · Fire protection engineering · Health technologies · Nutrition · Pharmaceuticals · Safety engineering · Sanitary engineering Transport Aerospace · Aerospace engineering · Automotive engineering · Marine engineering · Motor vehicles · Space technology Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Pharmacology Categories: Pharmacology | Biochemistry Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية বাংলা Bosanski БългарÑ?ки Català Česky Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Ù?ارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ã?slenska Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ Occitan پښتو Polski Português Română РуÑ?Ñ?кий Shqip SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina Suomi Svenska ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 21 August 2008, at 22:02
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