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07-SEPTEMBER-2008 03:17:44 - esteem Psychology or the Psychology Portal may be able to help recruit one. If a more appropriate or portal exists, please adjust this template accordingly. For the The Offspring single, see Self Esteem song. In psychology and sociology, self-esteem reflects a person's overall self-appraisal of her or his own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs for example, I am competent/incompetent and emotions for example, triumph/despair, pride/shame. Behavior may reflect self-esteem for example, assertiveness/timorousness, confidence/caution. Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic trait self-esteem, though normal, short-term variations state self-esteem occur. Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension for example, I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular or have global extent for example, I believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in general. Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: self-worth1 self-regard2 self-respect3 self-confidence a sometimes disparaging term which can suggest excessive self-regard more than self-esteem4 self-love which can express overtones of self-promotion5 self-integrity Compare: self-efficacy Contents 1 History of the concept of self-esteem 2 Definitions of self-esteem 3 Measuring self-esteem 4 Maslow's approaches to esteem 5 Quality and level of self-esteem 6 Excessive self-esteem 7 Self-esteem, grades and relationships 8 Bullying, violence and murder 9 Contingencies of self-worth 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Contingencies of self-worth references 13 External links History of the concept of self-esteem The Oxford English Dictionary OED6 traces the use of the word self-esteem in English back as far as 1657. John Milton is argued to have first coined this term.7 After a career in the proto-psychological lore of phrenology in the 19th century8 the term entered more mainstream psychological use in the work of the American psychologists and philosophers Lorne Parkcitation needed and William James in 1890. Self-esteem has become the third most frequently occurring theme in psychological literature: as of 2003 over 25,000 articles, chapters, and books referred to the topic.9 Definitions of self-esteem Given a long and varied history, the term has, unsurprisingly, no less than three major types of definitions in the field, each of which has generated its own tradition of research, findings, and practical applications: The original definition presents self-esteem as a ratio found by dividing one's successes in areas of life of importance to a given individual by the failures in them or one's success / pretensions.10 Problems with this approach come from making self-esteem contingent upon success: this implies inherent instability because failure can occur at any moment.11 In the mid 1960s Morris Rosenberg and social-learning theorists defined self-esteem in terms of a stable sense of personal worth or worthiness, see Rosenberg self esteem scale. This became the most frequently used definition for research, but involves problems of boundary-definition, making self-esteem indistinguishable from such things as narcissism or simple bragging.12 Nathaniel Branden in 1969 briefly defined self-esteem as ...the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life and being worthy of happiness. This two-factor approach, as some have also called it, provides a balanced definition that seems to be capable of dealing with limits of defining self-esteem primarily in terms of competence or worth alone.13 Branden's 1969 description of self-esteem includes the following primary properties: self-esteem as a basic human need, i.e., ...it makes an essential contribution to the life process, ...is indispensable to normal and healthy self-development, and has a value for survival. self-esteem as an automatic and inevitable consequence of the sum of individuals' choices in using their consciousness something experienced as a part of, or background to, all of the individuals thoughts, feelings and actions. Compare the usage of terms such as self-love or self-confidence. Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit and implicit self-esteem are subtypes of self-esteem proper. Implicit self-esteem is assessed using indirect measures of cognitive processing. These include the Name Letter Task 14 and the Implicit Association Test15. Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of, or control of, the process of assessment. When used to assess implicit self-esteem, they feature stimuli designed to represent the self, such as personal pronouns e.g., I or letters in one's name. Measuring self-esteem For the purposes of empirical research, psychologists typically assess self-esteem by a self-report inventory yielding a quantitative result. They establish the validity and reliability of the questionnaire prior to its use. Researchers are becoming more interested in measures of implicit self-esteem. Popular lore recognizes just high self-esteem and low self-esteem. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale 1965 and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory 1967/1981 feature among the most widely used systems for measuring self-esteem. The Rosenberg test, often seen as a standardwho?, usually uses a ten-question battery scored on a four-point response-system that requires participants to indicate their level of agreement with a series of statements about themselves. The Coopersmith Inventory uses a 50-question battery over a variety of topics and asks subjects whether they rate positive or negative characteristics of someone as similar or dissimilar to themselves.16 Maslow's approaches to esteem American psychologist Abraham Maslow described two kinds of esteem needs - the need for respect from others and the need for self-respect. 17 Respect from others entails recognition, acceptance, status, and appreciation.citation needed Without the fulfillment of these needs, Maslow suggests, an individual feels discouraged, weak and inferior.citation needed Quality and level of self-esteem Level and quality of self-esteem, though correlated, remain distinct. Level-wise, one can exhibit high but fragile self-esteem as in narcissism or low but stable self-esteem as in humility. However, investigators can indirectly assess the quality of self-esteem in several ways: in terms of its constancy over time stability in terms of its independence of meeting particular conditions non-contingency in terms of its ingrained nature at a basic psychological level implicitness or automatized. Excessive self-esteem Humans have portrayed the dangers of excessive self-esteem and the advantages of more humility since at least the development of Greek tragedy, which typically showed the results of hubris. Self-esteem, grades and relationships From the late 1970s to the early 1990s many Americans assumed as a matter of course that students' self-esteem acted as a critical factor in the grades that they earn in school, in their relationships with their peers, and in their later success in life. Given this assumption, some American groups created programs which aimed to increase the self-esteem of students. Until the 1990s little peer-reviewed and controlled research took place on this topic. The concept of self-improvement has undergone dramatic change since 1911, when Ambrose Bierce mockingly defined self-esteem as an erroneous appeasement. Good and bad character are now known as personality differences. Rights have replaced responsibilities. The research on ego centrism and ethnocentrism that informed discussion of human growth and development in the mid-20th century is ignored; indeed, the terms themselves are considered politically incorrect. A revolution has taken place in the vocabulary of self. Words that imply responsibility or accountability - self-criticism, self-denial, self-discipline, self-control, self-effacement, self-mastery, self-reproach, and self-sacrifice - are no longer in fashion. The language most in favor is that which exalts the self - self-expression, self-assertion, self-indulgence, self-realization, self-approval, self-acceptance, self-love, and the ubiquitous self-esteem. -20PX, 20PX Peer-reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated previous assumptions. Recent research indicates that inflating students' self-esteem in and of itself has no positive effect on grades. One study has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can actually decrease grades.18 High self-esteem correlates highly with self-reported happiness. However, it is not clear which, if either, necessarily leads to the other. 19Additionally, self-esteem has been found to be related to forgiveness in close relationships, in that people with high self-esteem will be more forgiving than people with low self-esteem. 20 Bullying, violence and murder Some of the most interesting results of recent studies center on the relationships between bullying, violence, and self-esteem. People used to assume that bullies acted violently towards others because they suffered from low self-esteem although supporters of this position offered no controlled studies to back up this belief. These findings suggest that the low-esteem theory is wrong. But none involves what social psychologists regard as the most convincing form of evidence: controlled laboratory experiments. When we conducted our initial review of the literature, we uncovered no lab studies that probed the link between self-esteem and aggression. -20PX, 20PX In contrast to old beliefs, recent research indicates that bullies act the way that they do because they suffer from unearned high self-esteem. Violent criminals often describe themselves as superior to others - as special, elite persons who deserve preferential treatment. Many murders and assaults are committed in response to blows to self-esteem such as insults and humiliation. To be sure, some perpetrators live in settings where insults threaten more than their opinions of themselves. Esteem and respect are linked to status in the social hierarchy, and to put someone down can have tangible and even life-threatening consequences. The same conclusion has emerged from studies of other categories of violent people. Street-gang members have been reported to hold favourable opinions of themselves and turn to violence when these estimations are shaken. Playground bullies regard themselves as superior to other children; low self-esteem is found among the victims of bullies, but not among bullies themselves. Violent groups generally have overt belief systems that emphasise their superiority over others. -20PX, 20PX The presence of superiority-complexes can be seen both in individual cases, such as the criminals Roy Baumeister studied, and in whole societies, such as Germany under the Nazi regime. The findings of this research do not take into account that the concept of self-esteem lacks a clear definition and that differing views exist of the precise definition of self-esteem. In his own work, Baumeister often uses a common use definition: self-esteem is how you regard yourself or how you appear to regard yourself regardless of how this view was cultivated. Other psychologists believe that a self esteem that depends on external validation of the self or other people's approval, such as what seems relevant in the discussion of violent people, does not, in fact, equate to true self-esteem. Nathaniel Branden labeled external validation as pseudo self-esteem, arguing that true self-esteem comes from internal sources, such as self-responsibility, self-sufficiency and the knowledge of one's own competence and capability to deal with obstacles and adversity, regardless of what other people think. Psychologists who agree with Branden's view dismiss Baumeister's findings. Such psychologistswho? say that Baumeister mistakes narcissism as high self-esteem in criminals. They see such narcissism as an inflated opinion of self, built on shaky grounds, and opine that violence comes when that opinion comes under threat. Those with true self-esteem who valued themselves and believed wholly in their own competence and worth would have no need to resort to violence or indeed have any need to believe in their superiority or to prove their superiority. Contingencies of self-worth Contingencies of self-worth comprise those qualities a person believes he or she must have in order to class as a person of value; proponents claim the contingencies as the core of self-esteem.citation needed In the field of social psychology, Jennifer Crocker has carried out major research on the topic of contingencies of self-worth. She says that her research explores what it is that people believe they need to be or do to have value and worth as a person, and the consequences of those beliefs. She claims that people pursue self-esteem by trying to prove that they have worth and value, and this pursuit affects the satisfaction of the fundamental human needs for learning, relationships, autonomy, self-regulation, and mental and physical health Crocker, 2007. Crocker argues that this pursuit of self-worth affects not only the individual, but everyone around the person as well. According to the Contingencies of Self-Worth model Crocker Wolfe, 2001 people differ in their bases of self-esteem. Their beliefs - beliefs about what they think they need to do or who they need to be in order to class as a person of worth - form these bases. Crocker and her colleagues 2001 identified seven domains in which people frequently derive their self-worth: Virtue God's love Support of family Academic competence Physical attractiveness Gaining others' approval Outdoing others in competition Individuals who base their self-worth in a specific domain such as, for example, academic success leave themselves much more vulnerable to having their self-esteem threatened when negative events happen to them within that domain such as when they fail a test at school. A 2003 study by Crocker found that students who based their contingency of self-worth on academic criteria had a greater likelihood of experiencing lower-state self-esteem, greater negative affect, and negative self-evaluative thoughts when they did not perform well on academic tasks, when they received poor grades, or when graduate schools rejected them Crocker, Karpinski, Quinn, Chase, 2003; Crocker, Sommers, Luhtanen, 2002. Crocker and her colleagues 2003 have constructed the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale, which measures the seven domains mentioned above that previous researchcitation needed had hypothesized as providing important internal and external sources of self-esteem. Crocker argues that the domains on which people base self-worth play a greater role than whether self-worth is actually contingent or not. Contingencies of self-worth can function internally, externally, or somewhere in between. Some research has shown that external contingencies of self-worth, such as physical appearance and academic success, correlate negatively to well-being, even promoting depression and eating-disorders Jambekar, Quinn, Crocker, 2001. Other work has found internal contingencies, on the other hand, unrelated or even positively related to well-being Sargent, Crocker, Luhtanen, 2006. Research by Crocker and her colleagues also suggests that contingencies of self-worth have self-regulatory properties Crocker, Luhtanen, Cooper, Bouvrette, 2003. Crocker et al. define successful self-regulation as the willingness to exert effort toward one's most important goals, while taking setbacks and failures as opportunities to learn, identify weaknesses and address them, and develop new strategies toward achieving those goals Crocker, Brook, Niiya, 2006. Since many individuals strive for a feeling of value, it makes sense that those people would experience special motivation to succeed and actively to avoid failure in the domains on which they base their own self-worth. Accordingly, successful self-regulation can prove difficult for people aiming to maintain and enhance their self-esteem, because they would have to actually embrace failure or criticism as a learning opportunity, rather than avoid it. Instead, when a task which individuals see as fundamental to their self-worth proves difficult and failure seems probable, contingencies of self-worth lead to stress, feelings of pressure, and a loss of intrinsic motivation.citation needed In these cases, highly contingent people may withdraw from the situation.citation needed On the other hand, the positive emotional affect following success in a domain of contingency may become addictive for the highly contingent individual Baumeister Vohs, 2001. Over time, these people may require even greater successes to achieve the same satisfaction or emotional high. Therefore, the goal to succeed can become a relentless quest for these individuals Crocker Nuer, 2004. Researchers such as Crocker believe that people confuse the boosts to self-esteem resulting from successes with true human needs, such as learning, mutually supportive relationships, autonomy, and safety Crocker Nuer, 2004; Crocker Park, 2004; Deci Ryan, 2000. Crocker claims that people do not seek self-esteem, but basic human needs, and that the contingencies on which they base their self-esteem has more importance than the level of self-esteem itself. See also Emotional competence Emotional intelligence Hubris Human Potential Movement Intercultural competence Narcissism Optimism bias Self-awareness Self image Self philosophy Self psychology Self sociology Self spirituality Social skills Sociometer References ^ Defined as self-esteem; self-respect in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth ion, 2000. Online at http://www.bartleby.com/61/58/S0245800.html, retrieved 2007-11-15 ^ Defined as consideration of oneself or one's interests; self-respect in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth ion, 2000. Online at http://www.bartleby.com/61/18/S0241800.html, retrieved 2007-11-15 ^ Defined as due respect for oneself, one's character, and one's conduct in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth ion, 2000. Online at http://www.bartleby.com/61/23/S0242300.html, retrieved 2007-11-15 ^ The Macquarie Dictionary. Compare The Dictionary of Psychology by Raymond Joseph Corsini. Psychology Press, 1999. ISBN 158391028X. Online via Google Book Search. ^ Defined as the instinct or desire to promote one's own well-being; regard for or love of one's self in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth ion, 2000. Online at http://www.bartleby.com/61/89/S0238900.html, retrieved 2007-11-15 ^ self-esteem in Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, second ion, 1989. ^ 1, Edward Pickering. 2008 July 1. Unidentified First Use of Self-Esteem: Milton's an Apology for Sanctimonious 1642. Oxford University Press online. Available: http://nq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/gjn100v1 2008 July 1 ^ self-esteem in Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, second ion, 1989. ^ Rodewalt Tragakis, 2003 ^ James, 1890 ^ Crocker and Park, 2004 ^ Baumeister, Smart, Boden, 1996 ^ Mruk, 2006 ^ Koole, S. L., Pelham, B. W. 2003. On the nature of implicit self-esteem: The case of the name letter effect. In S. Spencer, S. Fein, M. P. Zanna Eds., Motivated social perception: The Ontario Symposium pp. 93-116. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. ^ Greenwald, A. G., Farnham, S. D. 2000. Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022-1038. http://faculty.washington.edu/agg/pdf/Gwald_Farnham_JPSP_2000.OCR.pdf ^ From the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Research Network on Socioeconomic Status and Health from the University of California, San Francisco. Online at http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/Research/Psychosocial/notebook/selfesteem.html#Measurement, retrieved 2008-02-25 ^ Maslow A. H. 1987. Motivation and Personality 3rd ed.. New York: Harper Row. ^ Baumeister 2005 ^ Baumeister, 2003. ^ Eaton, Struthers, Santelli, 2006. Further reading Baumeister, R., Smart, L. Boden, J. 1996. Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5-33. Baumeister, Roy F. 2001. Violent Pride, in Scientific American, 284, No. 4, pages 96-101; April 2001. Baumeister, Roy F., et al. 2003. Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4 1, pages 1-44; May 2003. ed: other researchers: Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs Baumeister, Roy F., et al. 2005. Exploding the Self-Esteem Myth Scientific American, January 2005. ed. This study also involved Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs Branden, N. 1969. The psychology of self-esteem. New York: Bantam. Branden, N. 2001. The psychology of self-esteem : a revolutionary approach to self-understanding that launched a new era in modern psychology. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 2001. ISBN 0787945269 Burke, C. 2008Self-esteem: Why?; Why not?, Homiletic and Pastoral Review, New York, February 2008; http://cormacburke.or.ke Crocker, J., Park, L. E. 2004. The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 1303, 392-414. Hill, S.E. Buss, D.M. 2006. The Evolution of Self-Esteem. In Michael Kernis, Ed., Self Esteem: Issues and Answers: A Sourcebook of Current Perspectives.. Psychology Press:New York. 328-333. Full text James, W. 1983. The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Original work published 1890 Lerner, Barbara 1985. Self-Esteem and Excellence: The Choice and the Paradox, American Educator, Winter 1985. Maslow A. H. 1987. Motivation and Personality 3rd ed.. New York: Harper Row. Mecca, Andrew M., et al., 1989. The Social Importance of Self-esteem University of California Press, 1989. ed; other ors included Neil J. Smelser and John Vasconcellos Mruk, C. 2006. Self-Esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem 3rd ed.. New York: Springer. Rodewalt, F. Tragakis, M. W. 2003. Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 141, 66-70. Ruggiero, Vincent R. 2000. Bad Attitude: Confronting the Views That Hinder Student's Learning American Educator. Sedikides, C., Gregg. A. P. 2003. Portraits of the self. In M. A. Hogg J. Cooper Eds., Sage handbook of social psychology pp.110-138. London: Sage Publications. Twenge, Jean M. 2007. Generation Me: Why Today's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled - and More Miserable Than Ever Before. Free Press. ISBN 978-0743276986 Contingencies of self-worth references Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., Vohs, K. D. 2003. Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 41, 1-44. Crocker, J. 2007. Professional Profile: Jennifer Crocker. Retrieved September 27, 2007 from http://crocker.socialpsychology.org/ Crocker, J., Brook, A. T., Niiya, Y. 2006. The pursuit of self-esteem: Contingencies of self-worth and self-regulation. Journal of Personality, 746, 1749-1771. Crocker, J., Karpinski, A., Quinn, D. M., Chase, S. 2003. When grades determine self-worth: Consequences of contingent self-worth for male and female engineering and psychology majors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 507-516. Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K. 2003. Level of self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth: Unique effects on academic, social, and financial problems in college freshmen. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 701-712. Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., Bouvrette, S. 2003. Contingencies of self-worth in college students: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 894-908. Crocker, J. Nuer, N. 2004. Do people need self-esteem? Comment on Pyszczynski et al. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 469-472. Crocker, J., Park, L. E. 2004. The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 392-414. Crocker, J., Sommers, S., Luhtanen, R. 2002. Hopes dashed and dreams fulfilled: Contingencies of self-worth in the graduate school admissions process. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1275-1286. Crocker, J., Wolfe, C. T. 2001. Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108, 593-623. Jambekar, S., Quinn, D. M., Crocker, J. 2001. Effects of weight and achievement primes on the self-esteem of college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 48-56. Sargent, J. T., Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K. 2006. Contingencies of self-worth and depressive symptoms in college students. Journal of Social Clinical Psychology, 256, 628-646. External links Self-Esteem and Narcissism: Implications for Practice, digest of a study on early-childhood education. Retrieved 2007-07-10. Lack of self-confidence, a Buddhist view. Retrieved 2007-07-10. The costs and causes of low self-esteem Our Urgent Need For Self-Esteem by Nathaniel Branden The Trouble With Self-Esteem by Lauren Slater, New York Times, February 3, 2002 Body image and self-esteem Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Self-esteem Categories: Positive mental attitude | Psychological attitude | Conceptions of selfHidden categories: Psychology articles needing expert attention | Articles needing expert attention | Pages needing expert attention | All articles with statements | Articles with statements since January 2008 | Articles with specifically-marked weasel-worded phrases | Articles with statements since December 2007 Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ Polski Português РуÑ?Ñ?кий SlovenÄ?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Suomi Svenska ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 28 August 2008, at 09:2
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