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16-September-2008 16:15:09 - Meaning of life Please consider using Expert-subject to associate this request with a Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? is Paul Gauguin's interpretation of the question. Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? is Paul Gauguin's interpretation of the question. The meaning of life is the philosophic concept about the purpose and significance of human existence. It is the subject of much philosophic and scientific study, and much theologic speculation. 1234 Usually, this existential query is expressed interrogatively: 5 What is the meaning of life? 4678910 Why are we here? For what reason are we here? 111121314 15 What is the origin of life? 16 What is the nature of life? What is the nature of reality? 1617 What is the purpose of life? What is one's purpose in life?? 18171819 What is the significance of life? 19 What is meaningful and valuable in life? 20 What is the value of life? 21 What is the reason to live? For what are we living? 2215 Philosophically, logical positivists ask: What is the meaning of life? and What is the meaning in asking? 2324 To the question: If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless? 25 Existentialism posits that the person creates life's meaning for him- and herself, thus rejecting Nihilism, and Humanists seek an explanation answering: I'm here, I exist, now what? Theology being about the human psychologic need for a supernatural ideal, Friedrich Nietzsche says: God is dead, and Martin Heidegger asks: If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself. 26 Religion's answers to: What is the meaning of my life? include a moral demand 27 helpful in assuaging one's grief with death. 28 Unlike religion, mysticism and spirituality require direct experience, in order to learn that life existence is an unfolding awakening that transforms understanding to insight; hence, the ultimate goal in life is being living according to said mystical or spiritual insight - grasping, thereby, the meaning of life, of all of life, and of reality, itself.29730 One man cannot give his life value, only the work of many; minds, hands, bodies. Only through the lense of what exists before us can life be given value. When we take value as the determining factor of the meaning of the concept of life, then its meaning can either be an empty glass or an overflowing one. Contents 1 Western philosophy 1.1 Ancient philosophy 1.1.1 Platonic view 1.1.2 Aristotelian view 1.1.3 Cynical view 1.1.4 Cyrenaic view 1.1.5 Epicurean view 1.1.6 Stoic view 1.2 19th century philosophy 1.2.1 Utilitarian view 1.2.2 Nihilist view 1.2.3 Pragmatist view 1.3 20th century philosophy 1.3.1 Existentialist views 1.3.2 Humanist view 1.3.3 Logical positivist view 2 Abrahamic religions 2.1 Jewish view 2.2 Christian view 2.3 Islamic view 2.4 Bahá'í view 3 Dharmic religions and philosophy 3.1 Hindu views 3.2 Jain view 3.3 Buddhist views 3.4 Sikh view 4 East Asian religions and philosophy 4.1 Taoist views 4.2 Shinto views 4.3 Confucian views 5 Non-Abrahamic Iranian religions and philosophy 5.1 Zoroastrian view 6 Scientific approaches 6.1 Origin and nature of biological life 6.2 The Big Bang and humanity's fate in this universe 6.3 Significance and value in life 6.4 Scientific questions about the mind 7 Popular views 7.1 ...to realize one's potential and ideals 7.2 ...to achieve biological perfection 7.3 ...to seek wisdom and knowledge 7.4 ...to do good, to do the right thing 7.5 ...to attain spiritual enlightenment 7.6 ...to love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living 7.7 ...to have power, to be better 7.8 One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life 7.9 Life has no meaning 8 The meaning of life in pop culture 9 See also 9.1 Origin and nature of life and reality 9.2 Significance of life 9.3 Value in and of life 9.4 Purpose of life 9.5 Miscellaneous 10 References 11 External links 11.1 General 11.2 Scientific 11.3 Philosophical 11.4 Spiritual Western philosophy Further information: Western philosophy Ancient philosophy Further information: Ancient philosophy Plato and Aristotle, as represented in Raphael's The School of Athens fresco. Plato and Aristotle, as represented in Raphael's The School of Athens fresco. Platonic view Main article: Platonism Plato was the earliest, most influential Western philosopher - mostly for realism about the existence of universals. In the Theory of Forms, universals do not physically exist, like objects, but exist as ghostly, heavenly forms. In The Republic, the Socrates character's dialogue describes the Form of the Good. The Idea of the Good is ekgonos offspring of the Good, the ideal, perfect nature of goodness, hence an absolute measure of justice. In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea Form of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value. Human beings are duty-bound to pursue the good, but no one can succeed in that pursuit without philosophical reasoning, which allows for true knowledge. Aristotelian view Main article: Aristotelian ethics Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another, early, most influential Western philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge like metaphysics and epistemology, but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become 'good', thus if the person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous: Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor NE 1.1 Everything was done with a goal in mind, and that goal is 'good'. Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression. Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own sake, it is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other 'goods' desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia, usually translated as happiness, well-being, flourishing, and excellence. What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness. NE 1.4 Cynical view In the Hellenistic period, the Cynic philosophers said that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue that agrees with Nature. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character. The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional. 3132 As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to human beings. The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society. Cyrenaic view Cyrenaicism, founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, was an early Socratic school that emphasised only one side of Socrates's teachings - that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness. 3334 Epicurean view Bust of Epicurus leaning against his disciple Metrodorus in the Louvre Museum. Bust of Epicurus leaning against his disciple Metrodorus in the Louvre Museum. Main article: Epicurianism To Epicurus, the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from ataraxia fear via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain aponia is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus's lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures, is quasi-ascetic abstention from sex and the appetites: When we say . . . that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul. 35 The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no afterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us. 36 Stoic view Stoicism teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is freedom from suffering through apatheia Gr: απαθεια, that is, being objective, having clear judgement, not indifference. Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgement and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration. The Stoic ethical foundation is that good lies in the state of the soul, itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature. 36 The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy.36 19th century philosophy Further information: 19th century philosophy Utilitarian view Jeremy Bentham Jeremy Bentham The origins of Utilitarianism date to Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is cred to Jeremy Bentham, 37 who found that nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure, then, from that moral insight, deriving the Rule of Utility: that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Later, on grasping the conflict of principles inherent to that formulation, he revised it and dropped the second part, limiting his definition of the meaning of life to the greatest happiness principle. Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father's work. 38 In Utilitarianism, J.S. Mill argued that cultural, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than physical pleasure, because the former would be valued more highly, by competent judges, than the latter; a competent judge being anyone experienced in the low pleasures and the high pleasures. 39 Nihilist view The End of the World, by John Martin. The End of the World, by John Martin. Nihilism rejects any authority's claims to Knowledge and Truth, and so explores the meaning of life existence without knowable truth. Rather than insist that values are subjective, and might be warrant-less, the nihilist says: Nothing is of value: morals are valueless, only in place as Society's false ideals, created by social forces. Despite tending to defeatism, one can find strength and reason in the varied, unique human relations Nihilism explores. Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of the devaluing of the highest values. 40 Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values, returned meaning to the Earth.2 To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby Being is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of Being to exchange value. 40 Pragmatist view Pragmatism is a school of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s, concerned largely by the issue of truth. Pragmatists believe that it is only through struggling with the surrounding environment that theories and data acquired by intelligent organisms have significance. Consequences like utility and practicality as vital components of truth, but pragmatism does not hold that just anything that is useful or practical should be regarded as true, or just anything that helps us to survive in the short-term; pragmatists argue that what should be taken as true is that which most contributes to the most human good over the longest course. In practice this means that theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices - i.e., that one should be able to make predictions and test them - and that ultimately the needs of humankind should guide the path of human inquiry. Pragmatic philosophers suggest that rather than a truth about life, we should seek a useful understanding of life. William James argued that truth could be made but not sought.4142 To a pragmatist, the meaning of an individual's life can be discovered only through experience and the purposes which cause you to value it. 20th century philosophy Further information: 20th century philosophy Existentialist views Main article: Meaning existential Edvard Munch's The Scream, a representation of existential angst. Edvard Munch's The Scream, a representation of existential angst. Each man and each woman creates the essence meaning of his and her life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are action, freedom, and decision, thus, Existentialism counters rationalism and positivism. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; the insufficiency gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread, felt in facing one's radical freedom, and the concomitant awareness of death. To the existentialist, existence precedes essence; the essence of one's life arises only after one comes to existence. Søren Kierkegaard coined the term leap of faith, arguing that life is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully free of despair and anxiety in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so. 43 Arthur Schopenhauer answered: What is the meaning of life? by determining that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will life is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism. 4445 For Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw Nihilism all that happens is meaningless as without goals. He discred asceticism, because it denies one's living in the world; denied that values are objective facts, that are rationally unnecessary, universally-binding commitments: Our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective. 2 Humanist view Further information: Humanism life stance The Happy Human symbol representing Humanism. The Happy Human symbol representing Humanism. Per Humanism, the human race came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral part of nature, which is self-existing. 4647 Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, but from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis the scientific method: the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be. 46 Like-wise, values and realities are determined by means of intelligent inquiry46 and are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience, that is, by critical intelligence.4849 As far as we know, the total personality is a function of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context.47 People determine human purpose, without supernatural influence; it is the human personality general sense that is the purpose of a human being's life; humanism seeks to develop and fulfill: 46 Humanism affirms our ability, and responsibility, to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity. 48 Humanists promote enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. The happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity, as a whole, in part, because we are social animals, who find meaning in personal relations, and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture. 4748 The philosophic sub-genres posthumanism and transhumanism sometimes used synonymously are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible, to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the twenty-first century's technoscientific culture, thus, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social meaning of life. 50 Logical positivist view Of the meaning of life, Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: Expressed in language, the question is meaningless; because, in life the statement the meaning of x, usually denotes the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x, et cetera, thus, when the meaning of life concept equals x, in the statement the meaning of x, the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biologic life is essential to having a meaning in life. The things people, events in the life of a person can have meaning importance as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of the life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning for himself, others as the life events resulting from his achievements, legacy, family, et cetera, but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life to the living, so rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:36 When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is the Good, we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case - or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others . . . Questions as to values - that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects - lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to values lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has value, we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different. 51 Abrahamic religions Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions - Christianity, Judaism and Islam Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions - Christianity, Judaism and Islam Further information: Abrahamic religion Jewish view Judaism's most important is belief in a single, omniscient, omnipotent, omnibenevolent, transcendent God, who created the universe and governs it. Per traditional Judaism, God established a covenant with the Jewish people, at Mount Sinai, revealing his laws and commandments in the Torah. In Rabbinic Judaism, the Torah comprises the written Pentateuch Torah and the oral law tradition later transcribed as sacred writing. In the Judaic world view, the purpose of life is to serve God and to prepare for the world to come. 5253 The Olam Haba 54 thought is about elevating oneself spiritually, connecting to God in preparing for Olam Haba; Jewish thought is to use Olam Hazeh to elevate oneself. 55 Christian view Hans Memling's The Last Judgment, which depicts St Michael the Archangel weighing souls and driving the Damned towards Hell. Hans Memling's The Last Judgment, which depicts St Michael the Archangel weighing souls and driving the Damned towards Hell. Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered upon the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, as presented in the New Testament and portions of the 56 Holy Bible. From said sources, Christians believe they are tested and purified, to earn a place of responsibility with Jesus, in the afterlife, so, in 'loving God is the meaning of life. To achieve it, one asks forgiveness of sins and receives God to the heart. There is an eternal afterlife; one ascends to Heaven only via faith and love of Jesus Christ. Ephesians 2:8-9; Romans 6:23; John 3:16-21; John 3:36 The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things, by Hieronymus Bosch. God, in center watches the world. The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things, by Hieronymus Bosch. God, in center watches the world. Catholics believe that penance community service are required in earning forgiveness of sin, especially mortal sin. Protestants and evangelicals do not believe that one's actions, in themselves, have no impact upon one's personal salvation and entry to Heaven, instead, one's acceptance of Christ as saviour and repentance of sin determine existential fate. In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, the first question is: What is the chief end of Man?, that is, What is Man's main purpose?. The answer is: Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever. God requires one to obey the revealed moral law saying: love the Lord our God with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our strength, and with all our mind; and our neighbour as ourselves.57 The Baltimore Catechism answers the question Why did God make you? by saying God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him for ever in heaven.58 Islamic view In Islam, Man's ultimate life objective is to seek the pleasure of Allah, by abiding the Divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the Tradition of the Prophet. Earthly life, is merely a test, determining one's afterlife, either in Jannah paradise or in Jahannum Hell. For the pleasure of Allah, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the Day of Judgment.59 The purpose to the creation of man was for glorifying and worshipping Allah: 60 I only created jinn and man to worship Me Qur'an 51:56. Worship testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one acts behaves determines whether one's soul goes to Jannah Heaven or to Jahannam Hell. The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: Shahadah profession of faith; Salah ritual prayer; Zakah charity; Sawm fasting during Ramadan, and Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. 61 They derive from the Hadith works, notably of Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Beliefs differ among the Kalam. The Sunni concept of pre-destination is divine decree; 62 like-wise, the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize. 6363 Bahá'í view A nine-pointed star with the calligraphy of the Greatest Name in the centre, both Bahá'í symbols are connected with the word Bahá'. A nine-pointed star with the calligraphy of the Greatest Name in the centre, both Bahá'í symbols are connected with the word Bahá'. The Bahá'í Faith, founded by Bahá'u'lláh, emphasizes the spiritual unity of humanity. 64 In Bahá'í teachings, religious history has unfolded through a series of God's messengers delivering teachings suited to the spiritual capacities of the people in the time and place, whose fundamental purpose is the same. The purpose of human life is spiritual growth. An organic process that continues after death. There is no Heaven or Hell; they are states of spiritual nearness to and spiritual remoteness from God. Life continues in an afterlife, through which the soul may infinitely progress to exalted spiritual realms, ending in the Presence of God.656667 God's essence can not be fathomed, yet can be understood through his names and attributes, called gems, including compassion, justice, knowledge, and wisdom. Education especially spiritual reveals the divine gems that God has in one's soul.68 Dharmic religions and philosophy Further information: Dharma, Indian religions, and Indian philosophy Hindu views Further information: Hinduism and Hindu philosophy Hinduism is a diverse religion, of which some tenets are accepted by most Hindus, yet it has no universal doctrines. 69 Most believe that the �?tman spirit, soul - the person's true self - is eternal. 70 The purusharthas are the canonical four ends of human life least to greatest: K�?ma love and sensual pleasure, Artha wealth, Dharma righteousness, morality, and Moksha liberation from the reincarnation cycle. 717273 In the monist and pantheist theologies of Hinduism, such as the Advaita Vedanta school, the �?tman is indistinct from the supreme spirit, Brahman, The One Without a Second. 74 The goal of life is to know that one's atman soul is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.75 To the Upanishads, whoever becomes fully aware of the �?tman, as one's core of self, realises identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves Moksha liberation, freedom. 707677 The notion of lila play denotes the universe as cosmic game, wherein meaning is a play of significance.78 Lila is manifest in the inexhaustible richness of being and event that are the keys to the meaning of life. 79 Other Hindu schools, such as the dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools, posit Brahman as a Supreme Being with a personality. In said conceptions, the �?tman depends upon Brahman; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through love of God and upon his grace.76 The Jainist Vow of Ahimsa. The dharmacakra wheel is the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation via truth and non-violence. The Jainist Vow of Ahimsa. The dharmacakra wheel is the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation via truth and non-violence. Jain view Further information: Jainism and Jain philosophy Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves enlightenment perfect knowledge. Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use of the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.80 Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul. Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa or ahins�?, a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to Veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.81 Buddhist views One of the central views in Buddhism is a nondual worldview, in which subject and object are the same, and the sense of doer-ship is illusionary. On this account, the meaning of life is to become enlightened as to the nature and oneness of the universe. According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists Dukkha, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by desire and it can be brought to cessation by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The eight-spoked Dharmacakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism. The eight-spoked Dharmacakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism. This teaching is called the Catv�?ry Āryasaty�?ni Pali: Catt�?ri Ariyasacc�?ni, or the Four Noble Truths. There is suffering duhkha There is a cause of suffering - craving trishna There is the cessation of suffering nirvana There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering - the Noble Eightfold Path Theravada Buddhism promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada Pali, literally Teaching of Analysis. This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith; however, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation or freedom from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nibbana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death. Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from individual Suffering Dukkha and attainment of Awakening Nirvana. In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings. Sikh view The monastic Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak Dev, the term sikh means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat literally the counsel of the gurus or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth S�?hib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds. The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths. Therefore, Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him.82 Sikhs do not consider they have an exclusive right to salvation. Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.83 Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.84 A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself pantheism. Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,85 Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable. God is omnipresent sarav vi�?pak in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nanak stressed that God must be seen from the inward eye, or the heart, of a human being: devotees must mate to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through mation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.85 According to Sikhism, every creature has a soul. In death, the soul passes from one body to another until final liberation. The journey of the soul is governed by the karma of the deeds and actions we perform during our lives, and depending on the goodness or wrongdoings committed by a person in their life they will either be rewarded or punished in their next life. As the spirit of God is found in all life and matter, a soul can be passed onto other life forms, such as plants and insects - not just human bodies. A person who has evolved to achieve spiritual perfection in his lifetimes attains salvation - union with God and liberation from rebirth in the material world. East Asian religions and philosophy Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. May 2008 In Taoism, the Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between yin and yang, described in the theory of the Taiji. In Taoism, the Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between yin and yang, described in the theory of the Taiji. A torii is a traditional Japanese gate commonly found at the entry to a Shinto shrine. A torii is a traditional Japanese gate commonly found at the entry to a Shinto shrine. Further information: East Asian religions Taoist views The Taoists cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self-correction and self realization. It is the objective for all adherents to understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth. Within the theology of Taoism, all men were originally a being called yuanling from Taiji and Tao, the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence, and all adherents are expected to practise, hone and conduct their mortal lives by way of Xiuzhen and Xiushen, as a preparation for the spiritual transcendence thereafter. Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves.86 Shinto views Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.28 Confucian views Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving the good nature through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative energy. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence.87 Non-Abrahamic Iranian religions and philosophy Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. May 2008 Further information: Iranian religions and Iranian philosophy Zoroastrian view Founded by Zoroaster, the Zoroastrianism message was that humans are responsible for the moral choices they make in a world of both good and evil options. For those who chose good actions, a blissful afterlife is promised, as well as a return to earth to continue life in a physical form. Those who chose evil actions would be doomed to a hellish afterlife.88 Scientific approaches DNA, the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of life. DNA, the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of life. The primary aim of the scientific approach to the meaning of life is describing the empirical facts of human existence. That descriptive science can explain normative behaviour as the meaning of life is the subject of the Philosophy of Science. To wit, theories about the origin of life and of the world: abiogenesis biologic life and cosmogony the universe's origin in the Big Bang 89909192 in exploring the human need for meaning, and the nature of the mind, in the meaning of life. Origin and nature of biological life The mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: theories include the RNA world hypothesis; the primeval soup, and exogenesis. Almost all are contingent upon the evolution of genetic traits via genetic mutation and natural selection. 93 At twentieth century's end, based upon insight gleaned from the genetic view of evolution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins, David Haig, et al., posit that if there is a primary function to life, it is the survival of one's genes, thus, existential success is not in the survival of species, but in the successful replication of genes. 94 The Metric expansion of the universe. The the inflationary epoch is the expansion of the metric tensor at left. WMAP image, 2006 The Metric expansion of the universe. The the inflationary epoch is the expansion of the metric tensor at left. WMAP image, 2006 The Big Bang and humanity's fate in this universe Though the Big Bang model was met with much scepticism when first introduced, partially because of a connection to the religious concept of creation, it has become well supported by several independent observations.95 However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10-43 seconds after the Big Bang where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature, a theory of quantum gravity would be required to go further back in time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how our universe came into being.96 They generally agree amongst themselves that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is most often interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse.97 Humanity's fate in this universe appears to be doomed as -even if humanity would survive that long- biological life will eventually become unsustainable, be it through a Big Freeze, Big Rip or Big Crunch. It would seem that the only way to survive indefinitely, would be by directing the flow of energy on a cosmic scale and altering the fate of the universe.96 Significance and value in life Science may or may not be able to tell us what is of essential value in life, but some studies bear on related questions: Researchers in positive psychology and earlier and less rigorously in humanistic psychology study factors that lead to satisfaction in our lives. Social psychology examines factors that lead to infants thriving or failing to thrive, and in other areas of psychology questions of motivation, preference, and what people value. Economists have learned a great deal about what is valued in the marketplace; and sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc. Neuroscience has produced theories of reward, pleasure and motivation in terms of physical entities such as neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure, then these theories give normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Scientific questions about the mind The true nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science, the explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness, and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science, neuroscience and philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject.9899 Hieronymus Bosch's Ascent of the Blessed depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of near-death experiences. Hieronymus Bosch's Ascent of the Blessed depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of near-death experiences. Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, for example the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, thus adhering to biological naturalism.10010110210310499 On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that our perceptions may be as real as or even more real than material objects.105 Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a space of conscious elements105, often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.106 Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience, there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.107108 Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is a popular alternative to determinism, such postulations may variously relate the free will to quantum fluctuations,109 quantum measurement,110 quantum potential109 and quantum probability.111 Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the ground of all being.110112113 Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, such as extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as existence for an incorporeal higher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments. Meta-analyses of these experiments indicate that the effect size though very small has been relatively consistent, resulting in an overall statistical significance.114115116 Although some critical analysts feel that parapsychological study is scientific, they are not satisfied with its experimental results.117118 Skeptical reviewers contend that apparently successful results are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to actual effects.119120121122 Popular views What is the meaning of life? is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context What is the purpose of life?8 Here are some of the life goals people choose, and some of their beliefs on what the purpose of life is: ...to realize one's potential and ideals ...to chase dreams.10 ...to live one's dreams.123 ...to spend it for something that will outlast it.124 ...to matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.124 ...to expand one's potential in life.123 ...to become the person you've always wanted to be.125 ...to become the best version of yourself.5 ...to seek happiness126127 and flourish.1 ...to be a true authentic human being.128 ...to be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.124 ...to follow our destiny.129 ...to submit to our destiny.130 ...to create your own destiny.131 ...to achieve biological perfection ...to survive,132 that is, to live as long as possible,133 including pursuit of immortality through scientific means.134 ...to live forever134 or die trying.135 ...to evolve.136137 ...to replicate, to reproduce.10 The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells.138139140141 ...to be fruitful and multiply.142 Genesis 1:28 ...to seek wisdom and knowledge Philosopher in Mation detail by Rembrandt Philosopher in Mation detail by Rembrandt ...to expand one's perception of the world.123 ...to follow the clues and walk out the exit.143 ...to learn as many things as possible in life.144 ...to know as much as possible about as many things as possible.145 ...to seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind, as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness.146 ...to face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us.129 ...to find the meaning of life.147 ...to find the purpose of life.148 ...to find a reason to live.149 ...to resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.150 ...to do good, to do the right thing ...to leave the world a better place than you found it.10 ...to do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.10 ...to benefit others.15 ...to give more than you take.10 ...to end suffering.151152153 ...to create equality.154155156 ...to challenge oppression.157 ...to distribute wealth.158159 ...to be generous.160161 ...to contribute to the well-being and spirit of others.162 ...to help others,1161 to help one another.163 ...to take every chance to help another while on your journey here.10 ...to be creative and innovative.162 ...to forgive.10 ...to accept and forgive human flaws.164 ...to be emotionally sincere.124 ...to be responsible.124 ...to be honorable.124 ...to seek peace.124 Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from Gustave Doré's illustrations for the Divine Comedy Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from Gustave Doré's illustrations for the Divine Comedy ...to attain spiritual enlightenment ...to reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine.165 ...to have a pure soul and experience God.124 ...to understand the mystery of God.129 ...to know God.166 ...to know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.167 ...to attain union with God.168 ...to love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living ...to love more.10 ...to love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.10 ...to treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.10 ...to seek beauty in all its forms.10 ...to have fun.162 ...to enjoy life.129 ...to seek pleasure124 and avoid pain.169 ...to be compassionate.124 ...to be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.10 ...to love others as best we possibly can.10 ...to love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.10 ...to love God166 and all of his creations.170 ...to glorify God by enjoying him forever.171 ...to have power, to be better ...to strive for power2 and superiority.169 ...to rule the world.130 ...to know and master the world.172173 ...to know and master nature.174 ...to fill the Earth and subdue it.142 Genesis 1:28 One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.150 You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.10 The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.10 One should live the life given to you instead. Life has no meaning Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.150 Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.10 There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.10 Life is a bitch, and then you die.125 Life sucks and in the end you die.157 The meaning of life in pop culture The meaning of life is a frequent subject in popular culture and in music, literature and visual arts, for example: in song: The Offspring's The Meaning of Life, Nas' Life's a Bitch, Kiss' Reason to Live, George Harrison's All Things Must Pass and What Is Life, Frank Sinatra's That's Life and If You Are but a Dream, Eric Idle's Always Look on the Bright Side of Life, Bobby McFerrin's Don't Worry, Be Happy, Evanescence's Bring Me to Life and Sweet Sacrifice, Nelly Furtado's All Good Things Come To An End and In God's Hands, 30 Seconds to Mars' A Beautiful Lie, Good Charlotte's I Just Wanna Live and The Chronicles of Life and Death, Meat Loaf's Life Is a Lemon and I Want My Money Back, Linkin Park's In the End and Breaking the Habit and Creed's What's This Life For; in literature: Anthony C. Grayling's The Meaning of Things, Viktor Frankl's Man's Search for Meaning, Robert Nozick's Philosophical Explanations and The Examined Life, Ken Wilber's Sex, Ecology, Spirituality, Julian Baggini's What's it All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life, Rick Warren's The Purpose Driven Life, Norman O. Brown's Life Against Death: The Psychoanalytic Meaning of History, Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West, Daniel Dennett's Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life, Richard Dawkins' Unweaving the Rainbow and River out of Eden and Alister McGrath's Dawkins' God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning of Life; in painting: Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?, by Paul Gauguin; The Scream, by Edvard Munch; The End of the World, by John Martin; Ascent of the Blessed and The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things, Hieronymus Bosch; The Last Judgment triptych and Thomas Cole's The Voyage of Life series by Hans Memling. The Voyage of Life Childhood The Voyage of Life Youth The Voyage of Life Manhood The Voyage of Life Old Age The Ultimate Answer to Life, The Universe and Everything in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and illustration of the bizarre and humorous nature of the universe described in Douglas Adams' series The Ultimate Answer to Life, The Universe and Everything in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and illustration of the bizarre and humorous nature of the universe described in Douglas Adams' series In Douglas Adams' popular comedy book series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything has the numeric solution of 42, which was derived over seven and a half million years by a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought. After much confusion from the descendants of his creators, Deep Thought explains that the problem is that they do not know the Ultimate Question1, and they would have to build an even more powerful computer to determine what that is. This computer is revealed to be Earth, which, after 10 million years of calculating, is destroyed to make way for a galactic bypass moments before it finishes calculations.175914 In Life, the Universe and Everything, it is confirmed that 42 is indeed the Ultimate Answer, and that it is impossible for both the Ultimate Answer and the Ultimate Question to be known about in the same universe, as they will cancel each other out and take the universe with them, to be replaced by something even more bizarre, and that this may have already happened.176 Subsequently, in the hopes that his subconscious holds the question, Arthur Dent guesses at question, coming up with What do you get when you multiply six by nine?, probably an incorrect guess, as the arrival of the Golgafrinchans on prehistoric Earth would have disrupted the computation process.177 However, Dent, Fenchurch, and a dying Marvin did see God's final message to his creation: We apologise for the inconvenience.178 In Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, there are several allusions to the meaning of life. In Part VI B: The Meaning of Life a cleaning lady explains Life's a game, you sometimes win or lose and later a waiter describes his personal philosophy The world is a beautiful place. You must go into it, and love everyone, not hate people. You must try and make everyone happy, and bring peace and contentment everywhere you go.179 At the end of the film, we can see Michael Palin being handed an envelope, he opens it, and provides the viewers with 'the meaning of life': Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations.179180181 In The Simpsons episode Homer the Heretic, a representation of God tells Homer what the meaning of life is, but as usual the one who really wanted to know the viewer is left disappointed. The dialogue goes as follows: Homer: God, what's the meaning of life? God: Homer, I can't tell you that. Homer: Why not? God: You'll find out when you die. Homer: Oh, I can't wait that long. God: You can't wait 6 months? Homer: No, tell me now... God: Oh, OK... The meaning of life is... At this point, the crs music starts and the show ends, interrupting God's explanation to humorous effect. At the end of The Matrix Revolutions, Smith concludes that the purpose of life is to end and is determined to move that purpose along.182 The crew of the Red Dwarf is captured in episode 2 of season 5 by a powerful being called The Inquisitor, a self-repairing simulant who survived until the end of time and, coming to the conclusion that there is no god and no afterlife, decided that the only point of life was to make something of yourself. The Inquisitor then proceeds to put each of the Red Dwarf misfits on trial and forces them to justify their existence. Failure to do so will result in a sentence of being erased from history. In Peanuts, Charlie Brown explains he thinks the purpose of life is to make others happy, to which Lucy responds that she doesn't think she is making anyone happy, and-more importantly-no one is making her happy, so someone isn't doing their job, eventually she asks him You say we're put on this earth to make others happy? ... What are the others put here for?183 On several other occasions, Charlie has asserted several other things in relation to life and its meaning: In the book of life, the answers aren't in the back.183184, That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another.183185, Happiness is anyone and anything at all that's loved by you.186 and Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time.187 Lucy has also declared Life is too short to waste it listening to some person who doesn't know when to shut up! Time is too valuable!183 and All you really need is love, but a little chocolate now and then doesn't hurt.183188 In Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey, Bill and Ted end up meeting God. Before being admitted into his presence, St. Peter billed as The Gatekeeper on IMDb asks them what the meaning of life is, and they reply with the lyrics to the song Every Rose Has Its Thorn by Poison. The Alchemist and the movie City Slickers both present the meaning of life as an individual journey to find one's own path. In this context, the path, similar to what is defined in Buddhism as the 4th Noble Truth: the Eightfold Path, is best explained simply as the overall way one chooses to lead their life. In A Man Without a Country, author Kurt Vonnegut sums up life with the words: We're all here to fart around. Don't let anyone tell you any different!. In Vonnegut's novel Breakfast of Champions, To be the eyes and ears and conscience of the Creator of the Universe, you fool. is Kilgore Trout's unwritten reply to the question What is the purpose of life? A quotation by Anton Chekhov states You ask What is life? That is the same as asking What is a carrot? A carrot is a carrot and we know nothing more.189 In William Shakespeare's Hamlet, Prince Hamlet states: To be or not to be, that is the question. And in the play Macbeth, Macbeth, in his darkest hours, proclaims: Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player, that struts and frets his hour upon the stage, and then is heard no more. It is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. In Dune, a seminal science fiction novel by Frank Herbert, the meaning of life is defined as not a question to be answered, but a reality to be experienced. See also Look up meaning of life in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Personal life portal Philosophy portal Origin and nature of life and reality Awareness Being Entropy Entropy and life Self-organization Evolution Evolutionary psychology Gene-centered view of evolution Existence Life Abiogenesis - the origins of biological life Biosemiotics Logos Nature Metaphysical naturalism Teleology Perception Reality Cosmos Cosmogony Multiverse Omniverse Simulated reality Universe Big bang Ultimate fate of the universe Significance of life History Semiotics Value in and of life Culture of life Bioethics Pro-life versus Pro-choice Quality of life Right to life versus Right to die Value of life Purpose of life Destiny Ethical living Intentional living Life extension Means to an end Purpose Simple living Sustainable living Miscellaneous Ideology Life stance Perennial philosophy - the universal recurrence of philosophical principles World riddle World view References ^ a b c d e f Julian Baggini September 2004. What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life. 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Retrieved on 2007-07-08 ^ For dharma, artha, and kama as brahmanic householder values see: Flood 1996, p. 17. ^ For the Dharma Ś�?stras as discussing the four main goals of life dharma, artha, k�?ma, and moksha see: Hopkins, p. 78. ^ For definition of the term प�?र�?ष-अर�?थ puruṣa-artha as any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. धर�?म, अर�?थ, काम, and मोक�?ष see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1. ^ Bhaskarananda, Swami 1994, written at Seattle, WA, The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion, Viveka Press, ISBN 1-884852-02-5 ^ Vivekananda, Swami 1987, written at Calcutta, Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, ISBN 81-85301-75-1 ^ a b Werner, Karel 1994, Hinduism, written at Richmond, Surrey, in Hinnells, John Ed., A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Curzon Press, ISBN 0-7007-0279-2 ^ See also the Vedic statement ayam �?tm�? brahma This Atman is Brahman ^ Richard Schechner 2002. Performance Studies: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0415146208. ^ Thomas Merton 1995. Thoughts on the East. New Directions Publishing. ISBN 0811212939. ^ Shah, Natubhai. Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Sussex Academic Press, 1998. ^ Viren, Jain. RE Today. Retrieved on 2007-06-14. ^ Daljeet Singh 1971. Guru Tegh Bahadur. Language Dept., Punjab. ^ Jon Mayled 2002. Modern World Religions: Sikhism. Harcourt Heinemann. ISBN 0435336266. ^ The Sikh Coalition ^ a b Parrinder, Geoffrey 1971. World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6. ^ Ming-Dao Deng 1990. Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life. HarperCollins. ^ Tu, Wei-Ming. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985. ^ Muesse, Mark. Religions of the Axial Age: An Approach to the World's Religions. Lectures at Rhodes College. ^ Brian Greene 2004. The Fabric of the Cosmos. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0375727205. ^ Noam Lahav 1998. Biogenesis: Theories of Life's Origin. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195117557. ^ André Brack 1998. The Molecular Origins of Life: Assembling Pieces of the Puzzle. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521564751. ^ Günter Wächtershäuser 25 Aug 2000. Origin of Life: Life as We Don't Know It, Science, 289 5483 pp. 1307-1308. ^ Charles Darwin 1859. On the Origin of Species. ^ Richard Dawkins 1976. The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019857519X. ^ Helge Kragh 1996. Cosmology and Controversy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 069100546X. ^ a b Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle 2000. Our Cosmic Future: Humanity's Fate in the Universe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052177098X. ^ Rem B. Edwards 2001. What Caused the Big Bang?. Rodopi. ISBN 9042014075. ^ Harvey Whitehouse 2001. The Debated Mind: Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography. Berg Publishers. ISBN 1859734278. ^ a b Jeffrey Alan Gray 2004. Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198520905. ^ Paul M. Churchland 1989. A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science. MIT Press. ISBN 0262531062. ^ Daniel Clement Dennett 1991. Consciousness Explained. Little, Brown and Co.. ISBN 0316180661. ^ Ned Joel Block 2007. Consciousness, Function, and Representation. MIT Press. ISBN 0262026031. ^ Andrew Brook; Kathleen Akins 2005. Cognition and the Brain: The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521836425. ^ Stanislas Dehaene 2001. The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness. MIT Press. ISBN 0262541319. ^ a b John D. Barrow; Paul C. W. Davies; Charles L. Harper 2004. Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052183113X. ^ Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze 1999. Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 1556433069. ^ J. McFadden 2002 Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies 9 4 pp. 23-50. ^ R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga 2000. Studies on the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psychopathology. Springer. ISBN 030646439X. ^ a b David Bohm; Basil J. Hiley 1993. The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory. Routledge. ISBN 0415065887. ^ a b Alexandra Bruce 2005. Beyond the Bleep: The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!?. The Disinformation Company. ISBN 1932857222. ^ Benjamin Libet; Anthony Freeman; Keith Sutherland 1999. The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will. Imprint Academic. ISBN 0907845118. ^ Mae-Wan Ho 1998. The Rainbow and the Worm: The Physics of Organisms. World Scientific, pp. 218-231. ISBN 9810234279. ^ Evan Harris Walker 2000. The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life. Perseus Books. ISBN 0738204366. ^ Radin, Dean 1997. The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0062515020. ^ Dunne, Brenda; Jahn, Robert G. 2003. Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer. Journal of Scientific Exploration 17 2: pp. 207-241. Retrieved on 2007-07-31. ^ Dunne, Brenda J.; Jahn, Robert G. 1985. On the quantum mechanics of consciousness, with application to anomalous phenomena. Foundations of Physics 16 8: pp. 721-772. doi:10.1007/BF00735378. Retrieved on 2007-07-31. ^ Alcock, James E.; Jahn, Robert G. 2003. Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance PDF. Journal of Consciousness Studies 10 6-7: pp. 29-50. Retrieved on 2007-07-30. ^ Hyman, Ray 1995. Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena. The Journal of Parapsychology 59 1. Retrieved on 2007-07-30. ^ Akers, C. 1986. Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4. PesquisaPSI. Retrieved on 2007-07-30. ^ Child, I.L. 1987. Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5. PesquisaPSI. Retrieved on 2007-07-30. ^ Wiseman, Richard; Smith, Matthew, et al. 1996. Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories. The Journal of Parapsychology. Retrieved on 2007-07-30. ^ Lobach, E.; Bierman, D. 2004. The Invisible Gaze: Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake's Staring Effects PDF. Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention pp. 77-90. Retrieved on 2007-07-30. ^ a b c Roger Ellerton PhD, CMC 2006. Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1412047099. ^ a b c d e f g h i j John Cook 2007. The Book of Positive Quotations. Fairview Press. ISBN 1577491696. ^ a b Steve Chandler 2005. Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be. Career Press. ISBN 1564148173. ^ Lee, Dong Yul; Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Patsult, Philip June 2000. What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures. Social Indicators Research 50 3: pp. 351-362. doi:10.1023/A:1004647517069. Retrieved on 2007-07-26. ^ Social perspectives, ACM Digital Library ^ John Kultgen 1995. Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195085310. ^ a b c d George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli 2004. Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home. Emmis Books. ISBN 1578601487. ^ a b John G. West 2002. Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization. Inkling Books. ISBN 1587420120. ^ Rachel Madorsky 2003. Create Your Own Destiny!: Spiritual Path to Success. Avanty House. ISBN 0970534949. ^ Lopez, Mike September 22, 1999. Episode III: Relativism? A Jedi craves not these things. The Michigan Daily. Retrieved on 2007-07-26. ^ Lovatt, Stephen C. 2007. New Skins for Old Wine. Universal Publishers, The Meaning of Life. ISBN 1581129602. ^ a b Raymond Kurzweil; Terry Grossman 2004. Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever 9. Holtzbrinck Publishers. ISBN 1-57954-954-3. ^ Bryan Appleyard 2007. How to Live Forever Or Die Trying: On the New Immortality. Simon Schuster. ISBN 0743268687. ^ Cameron, Donald 2001. The Purpose of Life. Woodhill Publishing. ISBN 0-9540291-0-0. ^ Wayne, Larry; Johnson, Grace. Expanding The Oneness. SelfGrowth.com. Retrieved on 2007-07-26. ^ Nick Lane 2005. Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804812. ^ Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan 2004. Genetics and the Logic of Evolution. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 0471238058. ^ Jennifer Ackerman 2001. Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Hery. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0618219099. ^ Boyce Rensberger 1996. Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195125002. ^ a b Thomas Patrick Burke 2004. The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 140511049X. ^ Chris Grau 2005. Philosophers Explore the Matrix. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195181074. ^ John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson 1997. Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-349-2. ^ John E. Findling, Frank W. Thackeray 2001. Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313290792. ^ Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama 1954. The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect. Doubleday. ^ Ernest Joseph Simmons 1973. Tolstoy. Routledge. ISBN 071007395X. ^ Richard A. Bowell 2004. The Seven Steps Of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. ISBN 1857883446. ^ John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller 1992. Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0805804250. ^ a b c Timothy Tang 2007. Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness. iUniverse. ISBN 9780595459414. ^ Tyler T. Roberts 1998. Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691001278. ^ Lucy Costigan 2004. What Is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning. iUniverse. ISBN 0595338801. ^ Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith 2007. Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care. Radcliffe Publishing. ISBN 1846191815. ^ David L. Jeffrey 1992. A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802836348. ^ Dana A. Williams 2005. In the Light of Likeness-transformed: The Literary Art of Leon Forrest. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814209947. ^ Jerry Z. Muller 1997. Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691037116. ^ a b Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart 2002. Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 184310024X. ^ Xinzhong Yao 2000. An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521644305. ^ Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek 2001. Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity. SAGE. ISBN 0761970495. ^ Anil Goonewardene 1994. Buddhist Scriptures. Harcourt Heinemann. ISBN 0435303554. ^ a b Luc Ferry 2002. Man Made God: The Meaning of Life. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226244849. ^ a b c Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace 2002. Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life. FT Press. ISBN 0130668362. ^ 2004 The Mutual-aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another. Haworth Press. ISBN 0789014629. ^ John Caunt 2002. Boost Your Self-Esteem. Kogan Page. ISBN 0749438711. ^ Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi 1993. The Work of the Kabbalist. Weiser. ISBN 087728637X. ^ a b Michael Joachim Girard 2006. Essential Believing for the Christian Soul. Xulon Press. ISBN 1597815969. ^ T. M. P. Mahadevan 1974. Philosophy: Theory and Practice Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy. Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras. ^ Jaideva Singh 2003. Vijñanabhairava. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120808207. ^ a b T. W. Mitchell 1927. Problems in Psychopathology. Harcourt, Brace company, inc.. ^ John T. Scully 2007. The Five Commandments. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1425119107. ^ John Piper 2006. Desiring God. Multnomah Books. ISBN 1590521196. ^ Peter Harrison 2001. The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521000963. ^ Steven Dillon 2006. The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292713452. ^ Raymond Aron 2000. The Century of Total War. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0861711734. ^ Douglas Adams. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. ISBN 0-330-25864-8. ^ Douglas Adams. Life, the Universe and Everything. ISBN 0-330-26738-8. ^ Douglas Adams 1 January 1980. The Restaurant at the End of the Universe. ISBN 0-345-39181-0. ^ Douglas Adams. So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish. ISBN 0-330-28700-1. ^ a b Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script ^ Terry Burnham 2005. Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471716952. ^ Yolanda Fernandez 2002. In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders. Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing. ISBN 1885473486. ^ Matt Lawrence 2004. Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the Matrix Trilogy. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405125241. ^ a b c d e Pregnant Pauses: Charlie Lucy ^ AllGreatQuotes: Charlie Brown Quotes ^ Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another.... ^ HamieNET.com You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown Happiness Lyrics ^ Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time. ^ AllGreatQuotes: Lucy Van Pelt Quotes ^ Chekhov Quote: You ask What is life? That is the same as asking What is a carrot? A carrot is a carrot and we know nothing more. External links General Meaningsoflife.com Meaningsoflife.tv - Video discussions on the ultimate meaning of life with various religious and philosophical leaders. Frequently Asked Questions about the Meaning of Life God's Will and The Meaning of Life: Creation is Love - A highly-trafficked blog-post which suggests simplifying and synthesizing the possibility of science and spiritual teachings being accurate... and then some. The Meaning of Life and other questions The Meaning of Life or, What's it all about? Lets step back a moment... Why do you want to know the meaning of life? Soulmates as The Meaning of Life The One Question - Free articles, exercises and tests on discovering purpose in life. Scientific Life's meaning from space/time principles Philosophical Einstein's credo The Meaning of Life in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy An Objective Philosophy: Why We Exist? - by Martin G. Walker. Hedonism Meaning of life The Logic of Existential Meaning A Guide for the Godless: The Secular Path to Meaning Spiritual A Guide for the Perplexed excerpt included - by E. F. Schumacher The Meaning of Life from a Jewish perspective - by Rabbi Noah Weinberg Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Meaning_of_life Categories: Life | Spirituality | Core issues in ethics | Religion and science | Metaphysics | EthicsHidden categories: Pages needing expert attention | Uncategorized pages needing expert attention | Articles to be expanded since May 2008 | All articles to be expanded Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages Česky Dansk Deutsch Français 한국어 עברית Bahasa Melayu Nederlands ‪Norsk bokmål‬ Polski Português Ру�?�?кий Shqip Simple English Sloven�?ina Suomi Svenska Türkçe 中文 This page was last modified on 16 August 2008, at 08:36

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