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16-September-2008 16:15:09 - disorder Redirected from Mental illness Mental disorder Classification and external resources MeSH D001523 Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental disorders has changed over time and across cultures. Definitions, assessments, and classifications of mental disorders can vary, but guideline criterion listed in the ICD, DSM and other manuals are widely accepted by mental health professionals. Categories of diagnoses in these schemes may include dissociative disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, eating disorders, developmental disorders, personality disorders, and many other categories. In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause of mental disorders, although they are often explained in terms of a diathesis-stress model and biopsychosocial model. Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. Mental health services may be based in hospitals or in the community. Mental health professionals diagnose individuals using different methodologies, often relying on case history and interview. Psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are two major treatment options, as well as supportive interventions. Treatment may be involuntary where legislation allows. Several movements campaign for changes to mental health services and attitudes, including the Consumer/Survivor Movement. There are widespread problems with stigma and discrimination. Contents 1 History 2 Classification 3 Disorders 4 Causes 5 Diagnosis 6 Treatment 6.1 Psychotherapy 6.2 Medication 6.3 Other 7 Prognosis 8 Prevalence 9 Professions and fields 10 Stigma of mental illness 11 Movements 12 Laws and policies 13 Perception and discrimination 13.1 Media 13.2 General public 13.3 Violence 13.4 Employment 14 Mental disorders in non-human animals 15 See also 16 Notes 16.1 Further reading 17 External links History Eight women representing prominent mental diagnoses in the nineteenth century. Eight women representing prominent mental diagnoses in the nineteenth century. Main article: History of mental disorders Ancient civilisations described and treated a number of mental disorders. The Greeks coined terms for melancholy, hysteria and phobia and developed humorism theory. Psychiatric theories and treatments developed in Persia, Arabia and the Muslim Empire, particularly in the medieval Islamic world from the 8th century, where the first psychiatric hospitals were built. Conceptions of madness in the Middle Ages in Christian Europe were a mixture of the divine, diabolical, magical and humoral, as well as more down to earth considerations. In the early modern period, some people with mental disorders may have been victims of the witch-hunts but were increasingly admitted to local workhouses and jails or sometimes to private madhouses. Many terms for mental disorder that found their way into everyday use first became popular the 16th and 17th centuries. By the end of the 17th century and into the enlightenment, madness was increasingly seen as an organic physical phenomenon with no connection to the soul or moral responsibility. Asylum care was often harsh and treated people like wild animals, but towards the end of the 18th century a moral treatment movement gradually developed. Clear descriptions of some syndromes may be relatively rare prior to the 1800s. Industrialization and population growth led to a massive expansion of the number and size of insane asylums in every Western country in the 19th century. Numerous different classification schemes and diagnostic terms were developed by different authorities, and the term psychiatry was coined, though medical superintendents were still known as alienists. The turn of the 20th century saw the development of psychoanalysis, which would later come to the fore, along with Kraepelin's classification scheme. Asylum inmates were increasingly referred to as patients and asylums renamed as hospitals. In the United States, a mental hygiene movement aimed to prevent mental disorders. Clinical psychology and social work developed as professions. World War I saw a massive increase of conditions that came to be termed shell shock. World War II saw the development in the US of a new psychiatric manual for categorizing mental disorders, which along with existing systems for collecting census and hospital statistics led to the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM. The International Classification of Diseases ICD followed suit with a section on mental disorders. The term stress, having emerged out of endocrinology work in the 1930s, was increasingly applied to mental disorders. Electro convulsive therapy, Insulin shock therapy and lobotomies and the neuroleptic chlorpromazine came in to use mid-century. An antipsychiatry movement came to the fore in the 1960s. Deinstitutionalization gradually occurred in the West, with isolated psychiatric hospitals being closed down in favor of community mental health services. A consumer/survivor movement gained momentum. Other kinds of psychiatric medication gradually came into use, such as psychic energizers and lithium. Benzodiazepines gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity. Advances in neuroscience and genetics led to new research agendas. Cognitive behavioral therapy was developed. The DSM and then ICD adopted new criteria-based classifications, and the number of official diagnoses saw a large expansion. Through the 1990s, new SSRI antidepressants became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world. A recovery model developed. Classification Main article: Classification of mental disorders The definition and classification of mental disorder is a key issue for the mental health professions and for users and providers of mental health services. Most international clinical documents use the term mental disorder rather than mental illness. There is no single definition and the inclusion criteria are said to vary depending on the social, legal and political context. In general, however, a mental disorder has been characterized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with distress, disability or increased risk of suffering. There is often a criterion that a condition should not be expected to occur as part of a person's usual culture or religion. The term serious mental illness SMI is sometimes used to refer to more severe and long-lasting disorder. A broad definition can cover mental disorder, mental retardation, personality disorder and substance dependence. The phrase mental health problems may be used to refer only to milder or more transient issues. There are currently two widely established systems that classify mental disorders - Chapter V of the International Classification of Diseases ICD-10, produced by the World Health Organization WHO, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV produced by the American Psychiatric Association APA. Both list categories of disorder and provide standardized criteria for diagnosis. They have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain. Other classification schemes may be in use more locally, for example the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders. Other manuals may be used by those of alternative theoretical persuasions, for example the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. Some approaches to classification do not employ distinct categories based on cut-offs separating the abnormal from the normal. They are variously referred to as spectrum, continuum or dimensional systems. There is a significant scientific debate about the relative merits of a categorical or a non-categorical system. There is also significant controversy about the role of science and values in classification schemes, and about the professional, legal and social uses to which they are put. Disorders This section needs additional citations for verification. June 2007 There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human behavior and personality that can become disordered.1234 The state of anxiety or fear can become disordered, so that it is unusually intense or generalized over a prolonged period of time. Commonly recognized categories of anxiety disorders include specific phobia, Generalized anxiety disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Post-traumatic stress disorder. Relatively long lasting affective states can also become disordered. Mood disorder involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia or despair is know as Clinical depression or Major depression, and may more generally be described as Emotional dysregulation. Milder but prolonged depression can be diagnosed as dysthymia. Bipolar disorder involves abnormally high or pressured mood states, known as mania or hypomania, alternating with normal or depressed mood. Whether unipolar and bipolar mood phenomena represent distinct categories of disorder, or whether they usually mix and merge together along a dimension or spectrum of mood, is under debate in the scientific literature.5 Patterns of belief, language use and perception can become disordered. Psychotic disorders centrally involving this domain include Schizophrenia and Delusional disorder. Schizoaffective disorder is a category used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders. Schizotypy is a category used for individuals showing some of the traits associated with schizophrenia but without meeting cut-off criteria. The fundamental characteristics of a person that influence his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors across situations and time - can be seen as disordered due to being abnormally rigid and maladaptive. Categorical schemes list a number of different personality disorders, such as those classed as eccentric e.g. Paranoid personality disorder, Schizoid personality disorder, Schizotypal personality disorder, those described as dramatic or emotional Antisocial personality disorder, Borderline personality disorder, Histrionic personality disorder, Narcissistic personality disorder or those seen as fear-related Avoidant personality disorder, Dependent personality disorder, Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. There may be an emerging consensus that personality disorders, like personality traits in the normal range, incorporate a mixture of more acute dysfunctional behaviors that resolve in relatively short periods, and maladaptive temperamental traits that are relatively more stable.6 Non-categorical schemes may rate individuals via a profile across different dimensions of personality that are not seen as cut off from normal personality variation, commonly through schemes based on the Big Five personality traits.7 Other disorders may involve other attributes of human functioning. Eating practices can be disordered, at least in relatively rich industrialized areas, with either compulsive over-eating or under-eating or binging. Categories of disorder in this area include Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia nervosa, Exercise Bulimia or Binge eating disorder. Sleep disorders such as Insomnia also exist and can disrupt normal sleep patterns. Sexual and gender identity disorders, such as Dyspareunia or Gender identity disorder or ego-dystonic homosexuality. People who are abnormally unable to resist urges, or impulses, to perform acts that could be harmful to themselves or others, may be classed as having an impulse control disorder, including various kinds of Tic disorders such as Tourette's Syndrome, and disorders such as Kleptomania stealing or Pyromania fire-setting. Substance-use disorders include Substance abuse disorder. Addictive gambling may be classed as a disorder. Inability to sufficiently adjust to life circumstances may be classed as an Adjustment disorder. The category of adjustment disorder is usually reserved for problems beginning within three months of the event or situation and ending within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated. People who suffer severe disturbances of their self-identity, memory and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings may be classed as having a Dissociative identity disorder, such as Depersonalization disorder or Dissociative Identify Disorder itself which has also been called multiple personality disorder, or split personality.. Factitious disorders, such as Munchausen syndrome, also exist where symptoms are experienced and/or reported for personal gain. Disorders appearing to originate in the body, but thought to be mental, are known as somatoform disorders, including Somatization disorder. There are also disorders of the perception of the body, including Body dysmorphic disorder. Neurasthenia is a category involving somatic complaints as well as fatigue and low spirits/depression, which is officially recognized by the ICD-10 but not by the DSM-IV.8 Memory or cognitive disorders, such as amnesia or Alzheimer's disease exist. Some disorders are thought to usually first occur in the context of early childhood development, although they may continue into adulthood. The category of Specific developmental disorder may be used to refer to circumscribed patterns of disorder in particular learning skills, motor skills, or communication skills. Disorders which appear more generalized may be classed as pervasive developmental disorders PDD also known as autism spectrum disorders ASD; these include autism, Asperger's, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and other types of PDD whose exact diagnosis may not be specified. Other disorders mainly or first occurring in childhood include Reactive attachment disorder; Separation Anxiety Disorder; Oppositional Defiant Disorder; Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Causes Main article: Causes of mental disorders Numerous factors have been linked to the development of mental disorders. In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause currently established. A common view held is that disorders often result from genetic vulnerabilities combining with environmental stressors Diathesis-stress model. An eclectic or pluralistic mix of models may be used to explain particular disorders. The primary paradigm of contemporary mainstream Western psychiatry is said to be the biopsychosocial BPS model - incorporating biological, psychological and social factors - although this may not be applied in practice. Biopsychiatry has tended to follow a biomedical model, focusing on organic or hardware pathology of the brain. Psychoanalytic theories have been popular but are now less so. Evolutionary psychology may be used as an overall explanatory theory. Attachment theory is another kind of evolutionary-psychological approach sometimes applied in the context for mental disorders. A distinction is sometimes made between a medical model or a social model of disorder and related disability. Genetic studies have indicated that genes often play an important role in the development of mental disorders, via developmental pathways interacting with environmental factors. The reliable identification of connections between specific genes and specific categories of disorder has proven more difficult. Environmental events surrounding pregnancy and birth have also been implicated. Traumatic brain injury may increase the risk of developing certain mental disorders. There have been some tentative inconsistent links found to certain viral infections, to substance misuse, and to general physical health. Abnormal functioning of neurotransmitter systems has been implicated, including serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine and glutamate systems. Differences have also been found in the size or activity of certain brains regions in some cases. Psychological mechanisms have also been implicated, such as cognitive and emotional processes, personality, temperament and coping style. Social influences have been found to be important, including abuse, bullying and other negative or stressful life experiences. The specific risks and pathways to particular disorders are less clear, however. Aspects of the wider community have also been implicated, including employment problems, socioeconomic inequality, lack of social cohesion, problems linked to migration, and features of particular societies and cultures. Diagnosis Many mental health professionals, particularly psychiatrists, seek to diagnose individuals by ascertaining their particular mental disorder. Some professionals, for example some clinical psychologists, may avoid diagnosis in favor of other assessment methods such as formulation of a client's difficulties and circumstances.9 The majority of mental health problems are actually assessed and treated by family physicians during consultations, who may refer on for more specialist diagnosis in acute or chronic cases. Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview which may be referred to as a mental status examination, where judgments are made of the interviewee's appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances. The views of relatives or other third parties may be taken into account. A physical examination to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted. Psychological testing is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, which may include algorithms based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in relatively rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but these methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice.1011 Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrists from conducting more thorough diagnostic evaluations.12 It has been found that most clinicians evaluate patients using an unstructured, open-ended approach, with limited training in evidence-based assessment methods, and that inaccurate diagnosis may be common in routine practice.13 Comorbidity is very common in psychiatric diagnosis, i.e. the same person given a diagnosis in more than one category of disorder. Treatment Main article: Treatment of mental disorders Treatment and support may be provided in psychiatric hospitals, clinics or any of a diverse range of community mental health services. Often an individual may engage in different treatment modalities. Individuals may be treated against their will in some cases. Services in some countries are increasingly based on a Recovery model that supports an individual's personal journey to regain a meaningful life. Psychotherapy Wikinews has related news: Dr. Joseph Merlino on sexuality, insanity, Freud, fetishes and apathy A major option for many mental disorders is psychotherapy. There are several main types. Cognitive behavioral therapy CBT is widely used and is based on modifying the patterns of thought and behavior associated with a particular disorder. Psychoanalysis, addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use. Systemic therapy or family therapy is sometimes used, addressing a network of significant others as well as an individual. Some psychotherapies are based on a humanistic approach. There are a number of specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be offshoots or hybrids of the above types. Mental health professionals often employ an eclectic or integrative approach. Much may depend on the therapeutic relationship, and there may be problems with trust, confidentiality and engagement. Medication A major option for many mental disorders is psychiatric medication. There are several main groups. Antidepressants are used for the treatment of clinical depression as well as often for anxiety and other disorders. There are a number of antidepressants beginning with the tricylics, moving through a wide variety of drugs that modify various facets of the brain chemistry dealing with intercellular communication. Beta-blockers, developed as a heart medication, is also used as an antidepressant. Anxiolytics are used for anxiety disorders and related problems such as insomnia. Mood stabilizers are used primarily in bipolar disorder. Lithium A a metal and Lamictal an epileptic drug are notable for treating both mania and depression. The others, mainly targeting mania rather than depression, are a wide variety of epilepsy medications and antipsychotics. Antipsychotics are used for psychotic disorders, notably for positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Stimulants are commonly used, notably for ADHD. Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there can be considerable overlap in the kinds of disorders for which they are actually indicated. There may also be off-label use. There can be problems with adverse effects and adherence. Other Electroconvulsive therapy ECT is sometimes used in severe cases when other interventions for severe intractable depression have failed. Psychosurgery is considered experimental but is advocated by certain neurologists in certain rare cases.1415 Psychoeducation may be used to provide people with the information to understand and manage their problems. Creative therapies are sometimes used, including music therapy, art therapy or drama therapy. Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including peer support, self-help groups for mental health and supported housing or supported employment including social firms. Some advocate dietary supplements.16 Many things have been found to help at least some people. A placebo effect may play a role in any intervention. Prognosis Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. June 2008 There is substantial variation over time between disorders, and between individuals. Functional ability may also vary across different domains. There may be remission of symptoms, but also relapse. Rates of recovery vary. A number of individual and social factors have been linked to prognosis. Despite often being characterized in purely negative terms, mental disorders can involve above-average creativity, non-conformity, goal-striving, meticulousness, or empathy.17 The public perception of the level of disability associated with mental disorders can change.18 Prevalence Main article: Prevalence of mental disorders Mental disorders have been found to be relatively common, with more than one in three people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria for at least one diagnosis at some point in their life up to the time they were assessed.19 A new WHO global survey currently underway1 indicates that anxiety disorders are the most common in all but 1 country, followed by mood disorders in all but 2 countries, while substance disorders and impulse-control disorders were consistently less prevalent. Rates varied by region.20 Such statistics are widely believed to be underestimates, due to poor diagnosis especially in countries without affordable access to mental health services and low reporting rates, in part because of the predominant use of self-report data rather than semi-structured instruments.citation needed Actual lifetime prevalence rates for mental disorders are estimated to be between 65% and 85%.citation needed A review of anxiety disorder surveys in different countries found average lifetime prevalence estimates of 16.6%, with women having higher rates on average.21 A review of mood disorder surveys in different countries found lifetime rates of 6.7% for major depressive disorder higher in some studies, and in women and 0.8% for bipolar 1 disorder.22 The updated US National Comorbidity Survey NCS reported that nearly half of Americans 46.4% meet criteria at some point in their life for either an anxiety disorder 28.8%, mood disorder 20.8%, impulse-control disorder 24.8% or substance use disorder 14.6%.232425 A 2004 cross-Europe study found that approximately one in four people reported meeting criteria at some point in their life for at least one of the DSM-IV disorders assessed, which included mood disorders 13.9%, anxiety disorders 13.6% or alcohol disorder 5.2%. Approximately one in ten met criteria within a 12-month period. Women and younger people of either gender showed more cases of disorder.26 A 2005 review of surveys in 16 European countries found that 27% of adult Europeans are affected by at least one mental disorder in a 12 month period.27 An international review of studies on the prevalence of schizophrenia found an average median figure of 0.4% for lifetime prevalence; it was consistently lower in poorer countries.28 Studies of the prevalence of personality disorders PDs have been fewer and smaller-scale, but one broad Norwegian survey found a five-year prevalence of almost 1 in 7 13.4%. Rates for specific disorders ranged from 0.8% to 2.8%, differing across countries, and by gender, educational level and other factors.29 A US survey that incidentally screened for personality disorder found a rate of 14.79%.30 Approximately 7% of a preschool pediatric sample were given a psychiatric diagnosis in one clinical study, and approximately 10% of 1- and 2-year-olds receiving developmental screening have been assessed as having significant emotional/behavioral problems based on parent and pediatrician reports.31 Professions and fields Main article: Mental health professional A number of professions have developed that specialise in the treatment of mental disorders, including the medical speciality of psychiatry including psychiatric nursing,323334 the division of psychology known as clinical psychology,35 Social Work,36 as well as Mental Health Counselors, Marriage and Family Therapists, Psychotherapists, Counselors and Public Health professionals. Those with personal experience of using mental health services are also increasingly involved in researching and delivering mental health services and working as mental health professionals.37383940 The different clinical and scientific perspectives draw on diverse fields of research and theory, and different disciplines may favor differing models, explanations and goals.17 Stigma of mental illness A large proportion of individuals who suffer from the symptoms of a mental illness will avoid seeking treatment for their symptoms because of the social stigma2 associated with having a mental illness. The US Surgeon General acknowledged this in 1999: Powerful and pervasive, stigma prevents people from acknowledging their own mental health problems, much less disclosing them to others.41 As a result many people feel the need to keep their mental illness a secret, and will deny the symptoms that they are experiencing. Two thirds of the people who would benefit from treatment for a mental illness do not receive treatment.42 As with many physical illnesses, the prognoses of a mental illness can worsen the longer that a mental illness remains untreated. The added anxiety of fearing a mental illness diagnoses can also be detrimental to an individual's mental health, this effect can greatly exacerbate an anxiety disorder or mood disorder. Efforts are being undertaken worldwide to eliminate the stigma of mental illness. 43 Movements The Consumer/Survivor Movement also known as user/survivor movement is made up of individuals and organizations representing them who are clients of mental health services or who consider themselves survivors of mental health services. The movement campaigns for improved mental health services and for more involvement and empowerment within mental health services, policies and wider society.444546 Patient advocacy organizations have expanded with increasing deinstitutionalization in developed countries, working to challenge the stereotypes, stigma and exclusion associated with psychiatric conditions. An antipsychiatry movement fundamentally challenges mainstream psychiatric theory and practice, including the reality or utility of psychiatric diagnoses of mental illnesses.4748 49 Laws and policies Three quarters of countries around the world have mental health legislation. Compulsory admission to mental health facilities also known as Involuntary commitment or sectioning, is a controversial topic. From some points of view it can impinge on personal liberty and the right to choose, and carry the risk of abuse for political, social and other reasons; from other points of view, it can potentially prevent harm to self and others, and assist some people in attaining their right to healthcare when unable to decide in their own interests.50 All human-rights oriented mental health laws require proof of the presence of a mental disorder as defined by internationally accepted standards, but the type and severity of disorder that counts can vary in different jurisdictions. The two most often utilized grounds for involuntary admission are said to be serious likelihood of immediate or imminent danger to self or others, and the need for treatment. Applications for someone to be involuntarily admitted may usually come from a mental health practitioner, a family member, a close relative, or a guardian. Human-rights-oriented laws usually stipulate that independent medical practitioners or other accred mental health practitioners must examine the patient separately and that there should be regular, time-bound review by an independent review body.50 An individual must be shown to lack the capacity to give or withhold informed consent i.e. to understand treatment information and its implications. Proxy consent also known as substituted decision-making may be given to a personal representative, a family member or a legally appointed guardian, or patients may have been able to enact an advance directive as to how they wish to be treated.50 The right to supported decision-making may also be included in legislation.51 Involuntary treatment laws are increasingly extended to those living in the community, for example outpatient commitment laws known by different names are used in New Zealand, Australia, United Kingdom and most of the United States. The World Health Organization reports that in many instances national mental health legislation takes away the rights of persons with mental disorders rather than protecting rights, and is often outdated.50 In 1991, the United Nations adopted the Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care, which established minimum human rights standards of practice in the mental health field. In 2006 the UN formally agreed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of disabled people, including those with psychosocial disabilities52 The term insanity, sometimes used colloquially as a synonym for mental illness, is often used technically as a legal term. Perception and discrimination Media Main article: Mental disorders in art and literature Media coverage of mental illness comprises predominantly negative depictions, for example, of incompetence, violence or criminality, with far less coverage of positive issues such as accomplishments or human rights issues.535455 Such negative depictions, including in children's cartoons, are thought to contribute to stigma and negative attitudes in the public and in those with mental health problems themselves, although more sensitive or serious cinematic portrayals have increased in prevalence.5657 In the United States, The Carter Center has created fellowships for journalists in South Africa, the U.S., and Romania, to enable reporters to research and write stories on mental health topics.58 Former U.S. First Lady Rosalynn Carter began the fellowships not only to train reporters in how to sensitively and accurately discuss mental health and mental illness, but also to increase the number of stories on these topics in the news media.59 60 General public The general public have been found to hold a strong stereotype of dangerousness and desire for social distance from individuals described as mentally ill.61 Violence People with mental disorders are often afraid of violence against them. Over a quarter of individuals accessing community mental health services in a US inner-city area are victims of at least one violent crime in a given year, a proportion eleven times higher than the inner-city average. The proportion is many times greater in every category of crime, including rape/sexual assault, other violent assaults, and personal and property theft.6263 Findings consistently indicate that it is many times more likely that people diagnosed with a serious mental illness living in the community will be the victims rather than the perpetrators of violence.6465 However, fear of unpredictable violent acts by people with mental illness is also common. One US national survey indicated that a far higher percentage of Americans rated individuals described as displaying the characteristics of a mental disorder for example Schizophrenia or Substance Use Disorder as likely to do something violent to others compared to those described as being 'troubled'.66 Research indicates, on balance, a higher than average number of violent acts by some individuals with certain diagnoses, notably antisocial or psychopathic personality disorders, but conflicting findings about specific symptoms for example links between psychosis and violence in community settings - but the mediating factors of such acts are most consistently found to be mainly socio-demographic and socio-economic factors such as being young, male, of lower socio-economic status and, in particular, substance abuse including alcohol.646717 For the most serious crimes, such as homicide, some diagnoses are over-represented in arrests/convictions; however, although high-profile cases have lead to fears that this has increased due to deinstitutionalization, this does not reflect the evidence.68 Violence related to mental disorder typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions, often in a family setting rather than between straingers.69 It is also an issue in healthcare settings70 and the wider community.71 Employment Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of unemployment among those with a diagnosis of mental illness.72 Schemes to combat stigma have been prioritized by global and national psychiatric organizations, but their methods and outcomes have been criticized as counterproductive.73 Mental disorders in non-human animals Psychopathology in non-human primates has been studied since the mid 20th century. Over 20 behavioral patterns in captive chimpanzees have been documented as statistically abnormal for their frequency, severity or oddness - some of which have also been observed in the wild. Captive great apes show gross behavioral abnormalities such as stereotypy of movements, self-mutilation, disturbed emotional reactions mainly fear or aggression towards companions, lack of species-typical communications, and generalized learned helplessness. In some cases such behaviors are hypothesized to be equivalent to symptoms associated with psychiatric disorders in humans such as depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. Concepts of antisocial, borderline and schizoid personality disorders have also been applied to non-human great apes.74 The risk of anthropomorphism is often raised with regard to such comparisons, and assessment of non-human animals cannot incorporate evidence from linguistic communication. However, available evidence may range from nonverbal behaviors - including physiological responses and homologous facial displays and acoustic utterances - to neurochemical studies. It is pointed out that human psychiatric classification is often based on statistical description and judgement of behaviors especially when speech or language is impaired and that the use of verbal self-report is itself problematic and unreliable.7475 Psychopathology has generally been traced, at least in captivity, to adverse rearing conditions such as early separation of infants from mothers; early sensory deprivation; and extended periods of social isolation. Studies have also indicated individual variation in temperament, such as sociability or impulsiveness. Particular causes of problems in captivity have included integration of strangers in to existing groups and a lack of individual space, in which context some pathological behaviors have also been seen as coping mechanisms. Remedial interventions have included careful individually-tailored re-socialization programs, behavior therapy, environment enrichment, and on rare occasions psychiatric drugs. Socialization has been found to work 90% of the time in disturbed chimpanzees, although restoration of functional sexuality and care-giving is often not achieved.7476 Laboratory researchers sometimes try to induce symptoms in animals through genetic, neurological or behavioral manipulation,7778 although this has been criticized on empirical grounds and opposed on animal rights grounds. The modern city, in connection with the psychological disorders of its residents, has been described as a human zoo. See also Psychiatric assessment Psychopathology Mental disorder defence Mental health Mental retardation List of mentally ill monarchs DSM-IV Codes Self-help groups for mental health Mental disorders and gender Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV SCID Anti-psychiatry Mental illness in films Notes ^ Gazzaniga, M.S., Heatherton, T.F. 2006. Psychological Science. New York: W.W. Norton Company, Inc. ^ WebMD, Inc. 2005, July 01. Mental Health: Types of Mental Illness. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/mental-health-types-illness ^ United States Department of Health Human Services. 1999. Overview of Mental Illness. Retrieved April 19, 2007 ^ NIMH 2005 Teacher's Guide: Information about Mental Illness and the Brain Curriculum supplement from The NIH Curriculum Supplements Series ^ Akiskal, HS. Benazzi, F. 2006 The DSM-IV and ICD-10 categories of recurrent major depressive and bipolar II disorders: evidence that they lie on a dimensional spectrum. Journal of Affective Disorders May;921:45-54. ^ Lee Anna Clark 2007 Assessment and Diagnosis of Personality Disorder: Perennial Issues and an Emerging Reconceptualization Annual Review of Psychology Vol. 58: 227-257 ^ Morey LC, Hopwood CJ, Gunderson JG, Skodol AE, Shea MT, Yen S, Stout RL, Zanarini MC, Grilo CM, Sanislow CA, McGlashan TH. 2006 Comparison of alternative models for personality disorders. Psychol Med. Nov 23;:1-12 ^ Gamma A, Angst J, Ajdacic V, Eich D, Rossler W. 2007 The spectra of neurasthenia and depression: course, stability and transitions. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. Mar;2572:120-7. ^ Kinderman, P. and Lobban, F. 2000 Evolving formulations: Sharing complex information with clients. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 283, 307-310. ^ HealthWise 2004 Mental Health Assessment. Yahoo! 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Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 33:92-102 ^ The Joseph Rowntree Foundation 1998 The experiences of mental health service users as mental health professionals ^ Chamberlin J. 2005 User/consumer involvement in mental health service delivery. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc. Jan-Mar;141:10-4. PMID 15792289 ^ Terence V. McCann, John Baird, Eileen Clark, Sai Lu 2006 Beliefs about using consumer consultants in inpatient psychiatric units International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 15 4, 258-265. ^ Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General - Chapter 8 ^ CAMH: Toronto Star Opinion orial: Ending stigma of mental illness ^ Stop Stigma ^ Everett, B. 1994 Something is happening: the contemporary consumer and psychiatric survivor movement in historical context. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 15:55-7 ^ Rissmiller DJ Rissmiller JH 2006 Evolution of the antipsychiatry movement into mental health consumerism. 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Claasen, D. 2001 Depictions of mental illness in print media: a prospective national sample Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36 5, 697-700. ^ Edney, RD. 2004 Mass Media and Mental Illness: A Literature Review Canadian Mental Health Association ^ Diefenbach, D.L. 1998 The portrayal of mental illness on prime-time television Journal of Community Psychology Vol 25, Issue 3, Pages 289-302 ^ Sieff, E. 2003 Media frames of mental illnesses: The potential impact of negative frames Journal of Mental Health, Vol 123 pp. 259-269 ^ Wahl, O.F. 2003 News Media Portrayal of Mental Illness: Implications for Public Policy American Behavioral Scientist Vol. 46, No. 12, 1594-1600 ^ The Carter Center 2008-07-18, The Carter Center Awards 2008-2009 Rosalynn Carter Fellowships for Mental Health Journalism, http://www.cartercenter.com/news/pr/mental_health_fellows_2008_2009.html. Retrieved on 21 July 2008 ^ The Carter Center, The Rosalynn Carter Fellowships For Mental Health Journalism, http://www.cartercenter.com/health/mental_health/fellowships/index.html. Retrieved on 21 July 2008 ^ The Carter Center, Rosalynn Carter's Advocacy in Mental Health, http://www.cartercenter.com/health/mental_health/rc_advocacy.html. Retrieved on 21 July 2008 ^ Link BG, Phelan JC, Bresnahan M, Stueve A, Pescosolido BA. 1999 Public conceptions of mental illness: labels, causes, dangerousness, and social distance. Am J Public Health. Sep;899:1328-33. ^ Linda A. Teplin, PhD; Gary M. McClelland, PhD; Karen M. Abram, PhD; Dana A. Weiner, PhD 2005 Crime Victimization in Adults With Severe Mental Illness: Comparison With the National Crime Victimization Survey Arch Gen Psychiatry. 628:911-921. ^ Petersilia, J.R. 2001 Crime Victims With Developmental Disabilities: A Review Essay Criminal Justice and Behavior, Vol. 28, No. 6, 655-694 2001 ^ a b Stuart, H. 2003 Violence and mental illness: an overview. World Psychiatry. June; 22: 121-124 ^ Brekke JS, Prindle C, Bae SW, Long JD 2001. Risks for individuals with schizophrenia who are living in the community. Psychiatric Services. Oct;5210:1358-66. PMID 11585953 ^ Pescosolido BA, Monahan J, Link BG, Stueve A, Kikuzawa S. 1999 The public's view of the competence, dangerousness, and need for legal coercion of persons with mental health problems. American Journal of Public Health. Sep;899:1339-45. ^ Steadman HJ, Mulvey EP, Monahan J, Robbins PC, Appelbaum PS, Grisso T, Roth LH, Silver E. 1998 Violence by people discharged from acute psychiatric inpatient facilities and by others in the same neighborhoods. Archives of General Psychiatry. May;555:393-401. ^ Taylor, P.J., Gunn, J. 1999 Homicides by people with mental illness: Myth and reality British Journal of Psychiatry Volume 174, Issue JAN., 1999, Pages 9-14 ^ Solomon, PL., Cavanaugh, MM., Gelles, RJ. 2005 Family Violence among Adults with Severe Mental Illness. Trauma, Violence, Abuse, Vol. 6, No. 1, 40-54 ^ Chou, KR., Lu, RB., Chang, M. 2001 Assaultive behavior by psychiatric in-patients and its related factors. Journal of Nursing Research. Dec;95:139-51 ^ B. Lögdberg, L.-L. Nilsson, M. T. Levander, S. Levander 2004 Schizophrenia, neighbourhood, and crime. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1102 Page 92. ^ Heather Stuart 2006 Mental Illness and Employment Discrimination Current Opinion in Psychiatry 195:522-526. ^ Read, J., Haslam, N., Sayce, L., Davies, E. 2006 Prejudice and schizophrenia: a review of the 'mental illness is an illness like any other' approach Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Nov;1145:303-18 ^ a b c Brüne M, Brüne-Cohrs U, McGrew WC, Preuschoft S. 2006 Psychopathology in great apes: concepts, treatment options and possible homologies to human psychiatric disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 308:1246-59. PMID 17141312 ^ Fabrega H Jr. 2006 Making sense of behavioral irregularities of great apes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 308:1260-73; discussion 1274-7. PMID 17079015 ^ Lilienfeld SO, Gershon J, Duke M, Marino L, de Waal FB. 1999 A Preliminary Investigation of the Construct of Psychopathic Personality Psychopathy in Chimpanzees Pan troglodytes Journal of Comparative Psychology, 1134, Dec, P365-375 PMID 10608560 ^ Moran, M. 2003 Animals Can Model Psychiatric Symptoms American Psychiatric Association: Psychiatric News June 20, 2003 Volume 38 Number 12 ^ Sanchez, MM, Ladd, CO, Plotsky et al. 2001 Early adverse experience as a developmental risk factor for later psychopathology: Evidence from rodent and primate models Development and Psychopathology 2001, 13: 419-449 Further reading Atkinson, J. 2006 Private and Public Protection: Civil Mental Health Legislation, Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press Hockenbury, Don and Sandy 2004. Discovering Psychology. Worth Publishers. ISBN 0-7167-5704-4. Roy Porter, Madness. A Brief History, Oxford University Press 2003 Wiencke, Markus 2006 Schizophrenie als Ergebnis von Wechselwirkungen: Georg Simmels Individualitätskonzept in der Klinischen Psychologie. In David Kim ed., Georg Simmel in Translation: Interdisciplinary Border-Crossings in Culture and Modernity pp. 123-155. Cambridge Scholars Press, Cambridge, ISBN 1-84718-060-5 External links Listen to this article info/dl Play sound Spoken This audio file was created from a revision dated 2005-08-20, and does not reflect subsequent s to the article. Audio help More spoken articles This is a spoken version of the article. Click here to listen. NIMH.NIH.gov - 'Working to improve mental health through biomedical research on mind, brain, and behavior', National Institute of Mental Health United States NIMHE.org.uk - 'Responsible for supporting the implementation of positive change in mental health and mental health services', National Institute for Mental Health United Kingdom International Committee of Women Leaders on Mental Health - an international body of women political leaders founded by the World Mental Health Federation to produce positive change for citizens who struggle with mental illnesses. v d e List of mental illnesses Acute stress disorder - Adjustment disorder - Agoraphobia - alcohol and substance abuse - alcohol and substance dependence - Amnesia - Anxiety disorder - Anorexia nervosa - Antisocial personality disorder - Asperger syndrome - Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder - Autism - Autophagia - Avoidant personality disorder - Bereavement - Bestiality - Bibliomania - Binge eating disorder - Bipolar disorder - Body dysmorphic disorder - Borderline personality disorder - Brief psychotic disorder - Bulimia nervosa - Childhood disintegrative disorder - Circadian rhythm sleep disorder - Conduct disorder - Conversion disorder - Cyclothymia - Delirium - Delusional disorder - Dementia - Dependent personality disorder - Depersonalization disorder - Depression - Disorder of written expression - Dissociative fugue - Dissociative identity disorder - Down syndrome - Dyspareunia - Dysthymic disorder - Erotomania - Encopresis - Enuresis - Exhibitionism - Expressive language disorder - Factitious disorder - Female and male orgasmic disorders - Female sexual arousal disorder - Fetishism - Folie à deux - Frotteurism - Ganser syndrome - Gender identity disorder - Generalized anxiety disorder - General adaptation syndrome - Histrionic personality disorder - Hyperactivity disorder - Primary hypersomnia - Hypoactive sexual desire disorder - Hypochondriasis - Hyperkinetic syndrome - Hysteria - Intermittent explosive disorder - Joubert syndrome - Kleptomania - Mania - Male erectile disorder - Munchausen syndrome - Mathematics disorder - Narcissistic personality disorder - Narcolepsy - Nightmares - Obsessive-compulsive disorder - Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder - Oneirophrenia - Oppositional defiant disorder - Pain disorder - Panic attacks - Panic disorder - Paraphilias - Paranoid personality disorder - Parasomnia - Pathological gambling - Pedophilia - Perfectionism - Pervasive Developmental Disorder - Pica - Postpartum Depression - Post-traumatic stress disorder - Primary insomnia - Psychotic disorder - Pyromania - Reading disorder - Reactive attachment disorder - Retts disorder - Rumination disorder - Schizoaffective disorder - Schizoid - Schizophrenia - Schizophreniform disorder - Schizotypal personality disorder - Seasonal affective disorder - Self Injury - Separation anxiety disorder - Sexual Masochism and Sadism - Shared psychotic disorder - Sleep disorder - Sleep terror disorder - Sleepwalking disorder - Social phobia - Somatization disorder - Specific phobias - Stereotypic movement disorder - Stuttering - Suicide - Tourette syndrome - Transient tic disorder - Transvestic Fetishism - Trichotillomania - Vaginismus v d e WHO ICD-10 mental and behavioral disorders F · 290-319 Neurological/symptomatic Dementia Alzheimer's disease, multi-infarct dementia, Pick's disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, AIDS dementia complex, Frontotemporal dementia · Delirium · Post-concussion syndrome · Organic brain syndrome Psychoactive substance alcohol drunkenness, alcohol dependence, alcoholic hallucinosis, Alcohol withdrawal, delirium tremens, Korsakoff's syndrome, alcohol abuse · opioids opioid dependency · sedative/hypnotic benzodiazepine withdrawal · cocaine cocaine dependence · general Intoxication, Drug abuse, Physical dependence, Withdrawal Psychotic disorder Schizophrenia disorganized schizophrenia · Schizophreniform disorder · Schizotypal personality disorder · Delusional disorder · Folie à deux · Schizoaffective disorder Mood affective Mania · Bipolar disorder · Clinical depression · Cyclothymia · Dysthymia Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform Anxiety disorder Agoraphobia, Panic disorder, Panic attack, Generalized anxiety disorder, Social anxiety, Social phobia · OCD · Acute stress reaction · PTSD · Adjustment disorder · Conversion disorder Ganser syndrome · Somatoform disorder Somatization disorder, Body dysmorphic disorder, Hypochondriasis, Nosophobia, Da Costa's syndrome, Psychalgia · Neurasthenia Physiological/physical behavioral Eating disorder: Anorexia nervosa · Bulimia nervosa Sleep disorder: Dyssomnia Hypersomnia, Insomnia · Parasomnia REM behavior disorder, Night terror · Nightmare Sexual dysfunction: Erectile dysfunction · Premature ejaculation · Vaginismus · Dyspareunia · Hypersexuality · Female sexual arousal disorder Postpartum depression · Postnatal psychosis Adult personality and behavior Personality disorder · Passive-aggressive behavior · Kleptomania · Trichotillomania · Voyeurism · Factitious disorder · Munchausen syndrome · Ego-dystonic sexual orientation · Fetishism Mental retardation Mental retardation Psychological development developmental disorder Specific: speech and language expressive language disorder, aphasia, expressive aphasia, receptive aphasia, Landau-Kleffner syndrome, lisp · Scholastic skills dyslexia, dysgraphia, Gerstmann syndrome · Motor function developmental dyspraxia Pervasive: Autism · Rett syndrome · Asperger syndrome Behavioral and emotional, childhood and adolescence onset ADHD · Conduct disorder · Oppositional defiant disorder · Separation anxiety disorder · Selective mutism · Reactive attachment disorder · Tic disorder · Tourette syndrome · Speech stuttering · cluttering Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Mental_disorder Categories: Spoken articles | Disability | Medical ethics | Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ICD | PsychiatryHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from June 2007 | Articles to be expanded since June 2008 | All articles to be expanded | All articles with statements | Articles with statements since July 2008 Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية Bân-lâm-gú Català Česky Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego í•œêµì–´ Bahasa Indonesia Ã?slenska עברית Lietuvių Nederlands ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ O'zbek Polski Português Română РуÑ?Ñ?кий Simple English SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / СрпÑ?кохрватÑ?ки Svenska УкраїнÑ?ька ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 15 August 2008, at 23:02
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