Nahuatl

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16-September-2008 16:15:10 - Nahuatl Nahuatl, Mexicano, Nawatl N�?huatlaht�?lli, M�?sēwallaht�?lli Nahua woman from the Florentine Codex. The speech scroll indicates that she is speaking: Spoken in: Mexico Mexico State, Distrito Federal, Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Guerrero, Morelos, Oaxaca, Michoacán and Durango El Salvador United States, Total speakers: 1.45 million 20001 Language family: Uto-Aztecan Aztecan General Aztec Nahuatl, Mexicano, Nawatl Official status Official language in: In Mexico through the General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Spanish. Regulated by: Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas 1 Language codes ISO 639-1: none ISO 639-2: nah ISO 639-3: nci - Classical Nahuatl For modern varieties, see List of Nahuan languages. Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. Nahuatl ˈna�?.wat͡ɬ help·info2 is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan, or Nahuan, branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. All Nahuan branch languages are indigenous to Mesoamerica and are spoken by an estimated 1.5 million Nahua people, most of whom live in Central Mexico. Nahuatl has been spoken in Central Mexico since at least the 7th century AD.3 At the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico in the early 16th century it was the language of the Aztecs, who dominated central Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology. The expansion and influence of the Aztec Empire led to the dialect spoken by the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan becoming a prestige language in Mesoamerica in this period. With the introduction of the Latin alphabet, Nahuatl also became a literary language and many chronicles, grammars, works of poetry, administrative documents and codices were written in the 16th and 17th centuries.4 This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan dialect has been labeled Classical Nahuatl and is among the most-studied and best-documented languages of the Americas.5 Today Nahuan dialects6 are spoken in scattered communities mostly in rural areas. There are considerable differences between dialects, and some are mutually unintelligible. They have all been subject to varying degrees of influence from Spanish. No modern dialects are identical to Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the Valley of Mexico are generally more closely related to it than those on the periphery.7 Under Mexico's Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas General Law on the Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples promulgated in 2003,8 Nahuatl along with the other indigenous languages of Mexico are recognized as lenguas nacionales national languages in the regions where they are spoken, with the same status as Spanish.9 Nahuatl is a language with a complex morphology characterized by polysynthesis and agglutination, allowing the construction of long words with complex meanings out of several stems and affixes. Nahuatl has been influenced by other Mesoamerican languages through centuries of coexistence, becoming part of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. Many words from Nahuatl have been borrowed into Spanish and further on into hundreds of other languages. These are mostly words for concepts indigenous to central Mexico which the Spanish heard mentioned for the first time by their Nahuatl names. English words of Nahuatl origin include atlatl, avocado, chili, chocolate, coyote and tomato. Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-Columbian period 1.2 Colonial period 1.3 Modern period 2 Geographic distribution 3 Classification 3.1 Genealogy 4 Phonology 4.1 Sounds 4.2 Allophony 4.3 Phonotactics 4.4 Reduplication 5 Grammar 5.1 Nouns 5.2 Pronouns 5.3 Verbs 5.4 Syntax 5.5 Contact phenomena 6 Vocabulary 7 Writing and literature 7.1 Writing 7.2 Literature 7.3 Stylistics 8 Sample text 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External links History Pre-Columbian period By a general consensus developed in the 20th century, linguists contend that the Uto-Aztecan languages originated in the southwestern United States, and thereafter migrated southwards into Mexico.10 Some recent scholars such as Jane H. Hill have challenged this view, by proposing instead that the Uto-Aztecan languages originated in central Mexico and then spread northwards at a very early date.11 This hypothesis is yet to be consolidated, and a northern origin of the Uto-Aztecan languages remains the most favored. Archaeological, ethnohistorical and linguistic evidence suggests that speakers of early Nahuan languages first migrated into central Mexico from the northern Mexican deserts, most likely in several waves. Before reaching the central altiplano, these early pre-Nahuan groups probably spent a period of time in contact with the Coracholan languages in northwestern Mexico Cora and Huichol.12 This migration of proto-Nahuatl speakers into the Mesoamerican region has been placed at sometime around AD 500, towards the end of the Early Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology.13 The major political and cultural influence across the region in the Early Classic had been Teotihuacan, the great city which flourished in central Mexico during the first half-millennium AD. The languages spoken by Teotihuacan's founders has long been debated, and the relationship of Nahuatl to Teotihuacan has figured centrally in that enquiry.14 While in the 19th and early 20th centuries it was presumed that Teotihuacan had been founded by speakers of Nahuatl, later linguistic and archaeological research tended to discount this view. Instead, the timing of the Nahuatl influx was seen to coincide more closely with Teotihuacan's fall than its rise, and other candidates such as Totonacan identified as more likely.15 Recently discovered linguistic and epigraphic evidence from the Maya region has revived interest in the notion that Nahuan influences may have been significantly earlier than previously thought, opening up again the possibility of a significant Nahuatl presence at Teotihuacan.16 However the exact implications of this evidence are not yet agreed upon by the Mesoamericanist community, and the linguistic affiliations of Teotihuacan's populace remain undetermined.17 In Mesoamerica the Nahua came into contact with speakers of Mayan, Oto-Manguean and Mixe-Zoquean languages who had coexisted for millennia, and whose languages had converged to form the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. The earlier nomadic Nahuas adopted many aspects of Mesoamerican culture, which caused proto-Nahuatl to develop new traits similar to the other Mesoamerican languages. Those traits which are common to all Nahuatl varieties, but are absent in other Uto-Aztecan languages outside of Mesoamerica, are held to date from this period.18 Examples of such adopted traits include the use of relational nouns, the appearance of calques, or loan translations, and a form of possessive construction typical of Mesoamerican languages.19 The first group to split from the main group of proto-Nahuatl speakers were the Pochutec, who went on to settle on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, possibly as early as AD 400, arriving in Mesoamerica a few centuries earlier than the main bulk of Nahua peoples.20 The earliest migrations are thought to correspond to the modern peripheral dialects some of which are relatively conservative and do not display much influence from the central dialects.21 Some Nahuan groups migrated south along the Central American isthmus, reaching as far as El Salvador and Panama. They would be ancestral to speakers of modern Pipil.22 Beginning in the 7th century Nahuan speakers rose to power in central Mexico, where they expanded into areas earlier occupied by speakers of Oto-Manguean, Totonacan and Huastec languages.23 The people of the Toltec culture of Tula, Hidalgo, which was active in central Mexico around the 10th century, are thought to have been Nahuatl speakers, and the traits associated with the central dialects spread within central Mexico in the epi-Toltec period migrations. By the 11th century, Nahuatl speakers were dominant in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond, with centers such as Azcapotzalco, Colhuacan and Cholula rising to prominence. Successive Nahua migrations from the north into the region continued into the Postclassic period. One of the last of these migrations to arrive in the valley settled on an island in the Lake Texcoco and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes. This group were the Mexica or Mexihka, who over the course of the next three centuries founded an empire based from Tenochtitlan, their island capital. Their political and linguistic influence came to reach well into Central America and it is well documented that among several non-Nahuan ethnic groups, such as the K'iche' Maya, Nahuatl became a prestige language used for long distance trade and spoken by the elite groups.24 Colonial period With the arrival of the Spanish in 1519 the tables turned for the Nahuatl language, and a new language became dominant. However, because the Spanish allied themselves with the Nahuatl speakers from Tlaxcala and later with the conquered Aztecs, the Nahuatl language continued spreading throughout Mesoamerica in the decades after the conquest, when Spanish expions with thousands of Nahua soldiers marched north and south to conquer new territories. Jesuit missions in northern Mexico and the southwestern US region often included a barrio of Tlaxcaltec soldiers who remained to guard the mission.25 For example, some fourteen years after the northeastern city of Saltillo, Coahuila, was founded in 1577, a Tlaxcaltec community was resettled in a separate nearby village San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala, to cultivate the land and aid colonization efforts that had stalled in the face of local hostility to the Spanish settlement.26 Spanish conquests to the south of Mexico also often included Tlaxcatecs or other Nahuatl speaking allies.27 Page 51 of Book IX from the Florentine Codex. The text is in Nahuatl written with a Latin script. Page 51 of Book IX from the Florentine Codex. The text is in Nahuatl written with a Latin script. As a part of their missionary efforts, members of various religious orders principally Fransciscan friars, Dominican friars and Jesuits introduced the Latin alphabet to the Nahuas, who were eager to learn to read and write both in Spanish and in their own language. Within the first twenty years after the Spanish arrival, texts were being prepared in the Nahuatl language written in Latin characters.28 Also during this time institutions of learning were founded, such as the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, inaugurated in 1536, which taught both indigenous and classical European languages to both Indians and priests. Missionary grammarians undertook the writing of grammars of indigenous languages for use by priests. The first Nahuatl grammar, written by Andrés de Olmos, was published in 1547, three years before the first French grammar. By 1645 a further four had been published: one by Alonso de Molina in 1571, one by Antonio del Rincón in 1595, one by Diego de Guzmán in 1642, and in 1645, what is today considered the most important Nahuatl grammar, that of Horacio Carochi.29 In 1570 King Philip II of Spain decreed that Nahuatl should become the official language of the colonies of New Spain in order to facilitate communication between the Spanish and natives of the colonies.30 This led to the Spanish missionaries teaching Nahuatl to Indians who were native speakers of other indigenous languages as far south as Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Classical Nahuatl was used as a literary language, and a large corpus of texts from that period is in existence today. Texts from this period include histories, chronicles, poetry, theatrical works, Christian canonical works, ethnographic description and a wide variety of administrative and mundane documents. The Spanish permitted a great deal of autonomy in the local administration of indigenous towns during this period, and in many Nahuatl speaking towns Nahuatl was the de facto administrative language both in writing and speech. A large body of Nahuatl literature was composed during this period, including the Florentine Codex, a twelve-volume compendium of Aztec culture compiled by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún; Crónica Mexicayotl, a chronicle of the royal lineage of Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc; Cantares Mexicanos, a collection of songs in Nahuatl; a Nahuatl-Spanish/Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary compiled by Alonso de Molina; and the Huei tlamahuiçoltica, a description in Nahuatl of the apparition of the Virgin of Guadalupe. Grammars and dictionaries of indigenous languages were composed throughout the colonial period, but their quality was highest in the initial period and declined towards the ends of the 18th century.31 In practice, the friars found that learning all the indigenous languages was impossible and began to focus on Nahuatl. For a period the linguistic situation in Mesoamerica remained relatively stable, but in 1696 King Charles II passed a decree banning the use of any language other than Spanish throughout the Spanish Empire. In 1770 another decree with the avowed purpose of eliminating the indigenous languages, issued by the Royal Cedula, ended the existence of Classical Nahuatl as a literary language.32 Modern period Map showing the areas of Mesoamerica where Nahuatl is spoken today in White and where it is known to have been spoken historically Grey Map showing the areas of Mesoamerica where Nahuatl is spoken today in White and where it is known to have been spoken historically Grey33 Throughout the modern period the situation of indigenous languages has grown increasingly precarious, and the numbers of speakers of virtually all indigenous languages have dwindled. Although the absolute number of Nahuatl speakers has actually risen over the past century, indigenous populations have become increasingly marginalized in Mexican society. In 1895, Nahuatl was spoken by over 5% of the population. By 2000, this proportion had fallen to 1.49%. Given the process of marginalization combined with the trend of migration to urban areas and to the United States, some linguists are warning of impending language death.34 At present Nahuatl is mostly spoken in rural areas by an impoverished class of indigenous subsistence agriculturists.35 Since the early 20th century and until recently, educational policies in Mexico focused on the hispanification of indigenous communities, teaching only Spanish and discouraging the use of Nahuatl.36 The result has been that today no group of Nahuatl speakers has general literacy in Nahuatl,37 while their literacy rate in Spanish also remains much lower than the national average.38 Even so, Nahuatl is still spoken by well over a million people, of whom around 10% are monolingual. Nahuatl as a whole is not imminently endangered, but some of its dialects are severely endangered and others have become extinct within the last few decades of the 20th century.39 More recent government policy has encouraged the establishment of bilingual schools where at least some of the instruction is in Nahuatl. Although there are still problems, such as lack of textbooks in the Nahuatl of particular regions, or teachers from one dialect assigned to teach children in another region, there is at least some movement towards more widespread literacy in Nahuatl and use of Nahuatl in written form. The Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas General Law regarding the Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples, promulgated on 13 March 2003, recognizes all the country's indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, as national languages and gives indigenous people the right to use them in all spheres of public and private life.40 Government-sponsored broadcasting in Nahuatl is also carried by the CDI's radio stations. In February 2008 the mayor of Mexico City, Marcelo Ebrard, launched a drive to have all government employees learn Nahuatl. Ebrard stated he would continue institutionalizing Nahuatl, and that it was important for Mexico to remember its history and its tradition.41 Geographic distribution Main articles: Nahuatl dialects, List of Nahuan languages, and Nahua peoples Speakers over 5 years of age in the ten states with most speakers 2000 census. Absolute and relative numbers.42 Region Totals Percentages Federal District 37,450 0.44% Guerrero 136,681 4.44% Hidalgo 221,684 9.92% Mexico state 55,802 0.43% Morelos 18,656 1.20% Oaxaca 10,979 0.32% Puebla 416,968 8.21% San Luis Potosí 138,523 6.02% Tlaxcala 23,737 2.47% Veracruz 338,324 4.90% Rest of Mexico 50,132 0.10% Total: 1,448,937 1.49% A range of Nahuatl dialects are currently spoken in an area stretching from the northern state of Durango to Veracruz in the southeast. Pipil also known as Nawat,43 the southernmost Nahuan language, is spoken in El Salvador by a small number of speakers.44 Another Nahuan language, Pochutec, was spoken on the coast of Oaxaca until circa 1930.45 Based on figures accumulated by INEGI from the national census conducted in 2000, Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1.45 million people, some 198,000 14.9% of whom are monolingual.46 There is a disparity in monolingualism between males and females, with females representing nearly two-thirds of all monolinguals. The states of Guerrero and Hidalgo have the highest ratios of monolingual Nahuatl speakers, calculated at 24.2% and 22.6%, respectively. The proportion of monolinguals for most other states is less than 5%.47 The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, and Guerrero. Significant populations are also found in Mexico State, Morelos, and the Federal District, with smaller communities in Michoacán and Durango. Nahuatl was formerly spoken in the states of Jalisco and Colima, where it became extinct during the 20th century. As a result of internal migrations within the country, all Mexico's states today have some isolated pockets and groups of Nahuatl speakers. The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the United States has resulted in the establishment of a few small Nahuatl-speaking communities, particularly in New York and California.48 Classification The terminology used to describe varieties of spoken Nahuatl is inconsistently applied. Many terms are used for differing meanings, or the same groupings go under several names. Sometimes older terms are substituted with newer terms or the speakers' own name for their specific variety. The word Nahuatl is itself a Nahuatl word, probably derived from the word n�?watlahtolli clear language. The language was formerly called Aztec because it was spoken by the Aztecs, who however didn't call themselves Aztecs but mexica, and their language mexicacopa.49 Nowadays the term Aztec is rarely used for modern Nahuan languages, but Aztecan is used for the Nahuatl languages and dialects when described as the second constituent part of the Uto-Aztecan language family. This group is also often called Nahuan. General Aztec is used by some linguists to refer to the Aztecan languages excluding Pochutec.50 The speakers of Nahuatl themselves often refer to their language as either mexicano51 or a word derived from m�?cēhualli, the Nahuatl word for commoner. One example of the latter is the case for Nahuatl spoken in Tetelcingo, Morelos, whose speakers call their language mösiehuali.52 The Pipil of El Salvador do not call their own language Pipil, as most linguists do, but rather nawat.53 The Nahuas of Durango call their language mexicanero.54 Speakers of Nahuatl of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec call their language mela'tajtol the straight language.55 Some speech communities also use Nahuatl as the name for their language although this seems to be a recent innovation. Linguists commonly identify localized dialects of Nahuatl by adding as a qualifier the name of the village or area where that variety is spoken for example, Nahuatl of Acaxochitlan.56 Genealogy Main articles: Uto-Aztecan languages and Nahuatl dialects The Nahuatl languages belong to the Uto-Aztecan language family which is one of the largest and best studied language families of the Americas. The Nahuatl languages including Pipil and the extinct Pochutec are the only members of the Aztecan or Nahuan subgroup of Uto-Aztecan. The subgroupings of the Nahuan dialects and languages have been the subject of discussions among linguists for the past fifty years. Early classifications rested on the assumption that the basic division of Nahuan languages lay between the languages which had the /tl/ sound and others which had /t/ .57 This assumption was refuted by Lyle Campbell and Ronald Langacker in 1978, who showed that all the Aztecan languages had shared the development of /t/ to /tl/ but that subsequently some dialects had changed the /tl/ back to /t/ or /l/ .58 The most recent authoritative classifications of the Nahuan languages have been done by Yolanda Lastra de Suárez and by Una Canger.59 Both of these approaches were based on dialectological research that focussed on delineating isoglosses, or linguistic boundaries, based on differences in phonology, grammar and vocabulary. Both classifications define the basic split to be that between central and peripheral dialects. The hypothesis presented is that the speakers of peripheral dialects were the first Nahuatl speakers to arrive in Mesoamerica, and that they therefore preserve some slightly archaic features. The speakers of the central dialects who arrived later, among them the Aztecs, introduced linguistic innovations that then spread outwards from the Valley of Mexico aided by the expansion of Aztec hegemony and prestige.60 The two classifications are largely similar, but differ in their treatment of the dialects from the region of La Huasteca. Canger places these in the central group, while Lastra de Suárez places them in a separate group. The classification below is based on that of Lastra de Suárez, combined with Lyle Campbell's classification for the higher-level groupings. Uto-Aztecan 5000 BP Shoshonean a.k.a. Northern Uto-Aztecan Sonoran Aztecan 2000 BP a.k.a. Nahuan Pochutec † Coast of Oaxaca General Aztec a.k.a. Nahuatl Western periphery Dialects of Durango Mexicanero, Michoacán, Western Mexico state, extinct dialects of Colima and Nayarit Eastern Periphery Pipil language and dialects of Sierra de Puebla, southern Veracruz and Tabasco Isthmus dialects Huasteca Dialects of northern Puebla, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí and northern Veracruz Center Dialects of central Puebla, Tlaxcala, central Veracruz, Morelos, Mexico state, central and southern Guerrero Estimated split date by glottochronology BP = years Before Present. Some scholars continue to classify Aztecan and Sonoran together under a separate group called variously Sonoran, Mexican, or Southern Uto-Aztecan. There is increasing evidence that whatever degree of additional resemblance there might be between Aztecan and Sonoran when compared with Shoshonean is probably due to proximity contact, rather than to a common immediate parent stock other than Uto-Aztecan. Phonology Nahuan is defined as a subgroup of Uto-Aztecan by having undergone a number of shared changes from the Uto-Aztecan proto-language PUA since the original speakers of Nahuan split from the main Uto-Aztecan group. These changes shared by all Nahuan languages are the basis for the reconstruction of an intermediate stage called Proto-Nahuan PN from which the modern Nahuan languages have since developed. The table below shows the phonemic inventory of Classical Nahuatl, as an example of a typical Nahuan language. Many modern dialects have undergone changes from proto-Nahuan that have resulted in different phonemic inventories. For example some dialects do not have the /t͡ɬ/ phoneme that is so common in classical Nahuatl, but have instead changed it into /t/ as it has happened in Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl, Mexicanero and Pipil or into /l/ as it has happened in Nahuatl of Pómaro, Michoacán.61 Many dialects no longer distinguish between short and long vowels. Some have introduced completely new vowel qualities to compensate for this, as is the case for Tetelcingo Nahuatl.62 Others developed a pitch accent, such as Nahuatl of Oapan, Guerrero.63 Many modern dialects have also introduced new phonemes such as /b, d, ɡ, f/ under influence from Spanish. Sounds The consonants of classical Nahuatl Labial Alveolar Post- alveolar Palatal Velar Labio- velar Glottal Nasal m n Plosive p t k kʷ ʔ h Affricate t͡ɬ / t͡s t͡ʃ Fricative s ʃ Approximant l j w The vowels of classical Nahuatl Front Central Back long short long short long short Close i�? i o�? o Mid e�? e Open a�? a The glottal phoneme called the saltillo only occurs after vowels. In many modern dialects it is realized as an h, but in classical Nahuatl and in other modern dialects it is a glottal stop ʔ. Nahuatl generally has stress on the penultimate syllable of a word, but some varieties have changed this. Mexicanero Nahuat from Durango has lost many unstressed syllables and now has phonemic stress,64 and Pochutec had the accent on the last syllable of the word.65 Allophony Allophony, in Nahuatl, is not very rich in most varieties: In many dialects the voiced consonants are often devoiced in wordfinal position and in consonant clusters: /j/ devoices to a voiceless palatal sibilant /ʃ/,66 /w/ devoices to a voiceless glottal fricative h or to a voiceless labialized velar approximant �? and /l/ devoices to voiceless alveolar lateral ɬ. In some dialects the first consonant in almost any consonant cluster becomes h. Some dialects have productive lenition of voiceless consonants into their voiced counterparts between vowels. The nasals are normally assimilated to the place of articulation of a following consonant. The voiceless lateral affricate t͡ɬ is assimilated after /l/ and pronounced as l.67 Phonotactics Classical Nahuatl and most of the modern varieties have fairly simple phonological systems. They allow only syllables with maximally one initial and one final consonant. Consonant clusters only occur wordmedially and over syllable boundaries. Some morphemes have two alternating forms, one with a vowel i to prevent consonant clusters, and one without. For example, the absolutive suffix has the variant forms - tli used after consonants and - tl used after vowels.68 Some modern varieties however have formed complex clusters due to vowel loss. Others have contracted syllable sequences, causing accents to shift or vowels to become long.69 Reduplication Many varieties of Nahuatl have productive reduplication. By reduplicating the first syllable of a root a new word is formed. In nouns this is often used to form plurals, e.g. /tla:katl/ man /tla:tla:kah/ men, but also in some varieties to form diminutives, honorifics, or for derivations.70 In verbs reduplication is often used to form a reiterative expressing repetition, or to intensify the meaning of the verb. E.g. /kitta/ he sees it, /kihitta/ he looks at it repeatedly and /ki:itta/ he stares at it. Grammar See also: Classical Nahuatl grammar The Nahuatl languages are agglutinative, polysynthetic languages that make extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, they can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed - and a single word can constitute an entire sentence. The following verb shows how the verb is marked for subject, patient, object, and indirect object: ni-mit͡s-te:-t͡la-maki:-lti:-s I-you-someone-something-give-CAUSATIVE-FUTURE I shall make somebody give something to you71 Classical Nahuatl Nouns The Nahuatl noun is relatively complex with some inflectional categories.72 It is only obligatorily inflected for number and possession. Noun compounds are commonly formed by combining two or more nominal stem, or combining a noun stem with other kinds of stems such as adjectives or verbs. Nahuatl has neither case nor gender, but Classical Nahuatl and some modern dialects distinguish between animate and inanimate nouns which behave differently with respect to pluralization. In most varieties of Nahuatl most nouns in the unpossessed singular form take a suffix traditionally called an absolutive. The most common forms of the absolutive are -tl after vowels, -tli after consonants other than l, and -li after l. Nahuatl distinguishes only singular and plural forms of nouns. Plural forms of nouns are normally formed by adding a suffix, although some words form irregular plurals by using reduplication. In Classical Nahuatl only animate nouns could take a plural form, whereas all inanimate nouns were uncountable like the words bread and money are uncountable in English. Nowadays many dialects do not maintain this distinction and allow all nouns to be pluralized, although most inanimates and sometimes animates often show the common number pattern, i.e. their absolutive form can be understood as either singular or plural. Singular noun: kojo-t͡l coyote-ABSOLUTIVE coyote Classical Nahuatl Plural animate noun: kojo-meh coyote-PLURAL coyotes Classical Nahuatl Nahuatl distinguishes between possessed and unpossessed forms of nouns. As mentioned above, the absolutive suffix is not used on possessed nouns. In all dialects possessed nouns take a prefix agreeing with number and person of its possessor. Absolutive noun: kal-li house-ABSOLUTIVE house Classical Nahuatl Possessed noun: no-kal my-house my house Classical Nahuatl Nahuatl does not have grammatical case but uses what is sometimes called a relational noun to describe spatial and other relations. These morphemes cannot appear alone but must always occur after a noun or a possessive prefix. They are also often called postpositions73 or locative suffixes.74 In some ways these locative constructions resemble, and can be thought of as, locative case constructions. Most modern dialects have incorporated prepositions from Spanish that are competing with or that have completely replaced relational nouns.75 Uses of relational noun/postposition/locative -pan with a possessive prefix: no-pan my-in/on in/on me Classical Nahuatl i:-pan its-in/on in/on it Classical Nahuatl i:-pan kal-li its-in house-ABSOLUTIVE in the house Classical Nahuatl Use with a preceding noun stem: kal-pan house-in in the house Classical Nahuatl Pronouns Nahuatl generally distinguishes three persons - both in the singular and plural numbers. In at least one modern dialect, the Isthmus-Mecayapan variety, there has come to be a distinction between inclusive I/we and you and exclusive we but not you forms of the first person plural:76 First person plural pronoun in Classical Nahuatl: tehwa:ntin we First person plural pronouns in Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuat: nejamēn nehame:n We but not you tejamēn tehame:n We, I and you and others77 Much more common is an honorific/non-honorific distinction, usually applied to second and third persons but not first. Non-honorific forms: tehwa:tl you sg. amehwa:ntin you pl. yehwatl he/she/it Honorific forms tehwa:tzin you sg. honorific amehwa:ntzitzin you pl. honorific yehwa:tzin he/she honorific Verbs The Nahuatl verb is quite complex and inflects many grammatical categories.78 The verb is composed of a root which can take both prefixes and suffixes. The person of the subject, and person and number of the object and indirect object is expressed by agreement prefixes, whereas tense, aspect, mood and subject number is expressed by suffixes. Most Nahuatl dialects distinguish present, past and future tenses and perfective and imperfective aspects. Some varieties have progressive or habitual aspects. As for moods all dialects distinguish indicative and imperative moods and some also have optative and vetative moods. Most Nahuatl varieties have a number of ways to alter the valency of a verb. Classical Nahuatl had a passive voice, but this is not found in most modern varieties. However the applicative and causative voices are found in many modern dialects.79 Many Nahuatl varieties also allow forming verbal compounds with two or more verbal roots. The following verbal form has two verbal roots and is inflected for causative voice and both a direct and indirect object: ni-kin-t͡la-kwa-lti:-s-neki I-them-something-eat-CAUSATIVE-FUTURE-want I want to feed them Classical Nahuatl Some Nahuatl varieties, notably Classical Nahuatl, can inflect the verb to show the direction of the verbal action going away from or towards the speaker. Some also have specific inflectional categories showing purpose and direction and such complex notions as to go in order to or to come in order to, go, do and return, do while going, do while coming, do upon arrival, or go around doing. Classical Nahuatl and many modern dialects have grammaticalised ways to express politeness towards addressees or even towards people or things that are being mentioned, by using special verb forms and special honorific suffixes.80 Familiar verbal form: ti-mo-t͡la:lo-a you-yourself-run-PRESENT you runClassical Nahuatl Honorific verbal form: ti-mo-t͡la:lo-t͡sino-a you-yourself-run-HONORIFIC-PRESENT You runsaid with respect Classical Nahuatl Syntax The syntax of modern and Classical Nahuatl has been a topic of numerous studies. Some linguists, notably Mark Baker, have argued that Nahuatl displays the properties of a non-configurational language, meaning that word order in Nahuatl is basically free.81 He notes that Nahuatl allows all possible inversions of the basic sentence constituents, allows pro-drop of all direct arguments of a predicate, and that certain kinds of syntactically discontinuous expressions are allowed. The widest accepted conclusion is that Nahuatl originally has a basic verb initial word order but with extensive freedom for variation which is then used to encode pragmatic functions such as focus and topicality.82 For example in most varieties independent pronouns are used only for emphasis. newal no-nobia I my-fianceé My fiancée and not anyone else's Michoacán Nahual83 Some Nahuatl scholars such as Michel Launey84 and J. Richard Andrews85 have argued that classical Nahuatl syntax is best characterised by what Launey calls omnipredicativity, meaning that any noun or verb in the language is in fact a full predicative sentence. This is a radical interpretation of Nahuatl syntactic typology, that nonetheless seems to account for some of its peculiarities, for example, why nouns must also carry the same agreement prefixes as verbs, and why predicates do not require any noun phrases to function as their arguments. For example the verbal form tzahtzi means he/she/it shouts, and with the second person prefix titzahtzi it means you shout. Nouns are inflected in the same way: the noun konētl means not just child, but also it is a child, and tikonētl means you are a child. This prompts the omnipredicative interpretation which posits that all nouns are also predicates, and that a phrase such as tzahtzi in konētl should not be interpreted as meaning just the child screams but, more correctly, it screams, the one that is a child.86 Contact phenomena Nearly 500 years of intense contact between speakers of Nahuatl and speakers of Spanish, combined with the minority status of Nahuatl and the higher prestige associated with Spanish has caused many changes in modern Nahuatl varieties, with large numbers of words borrowed from Spanish into Nahuatl, and the introduction of new syntactic constructions and grammatical categories. For example, a construction like the following, with several borrowed words and particles, is common in many modern varieties Spanish loanwords in boldface: pero �?mo tēchentenderoah lo que tlen tictoah en mexicano but not they-us-understand-PLURAL that which what we-it-say in Nahuatl But they don't understand what we say in Nahuatl Malinche Nahuatl8788 In some modern dialects basic word order has become a fixed Subject Verb Object, probably under influence from Spanish.89 Other changes in the syntax of modern Nahuatl includes the usage of Spanish prepositions instead of postpositions or relational nouns and the reinterpretation of original postpositions/relational nouns into prepositions. In the following example, from Michoacán Nahual, the postposition -ka meaning with appears used as a preposition, with no preceding object: ti-ya ti-k-wika ka tel you-go you-it-carry with you are you going to carry it with you? Michoacán Nahual90 And, in this example from Mexicanero Nahuat, of Durango, the original postposition/relational noun -pin in/on is used as a preposition. porque, a preposition borrowed from Spanish, also occurs in the sentence. amo wel kalaki-yá pin kal porke ¢akwa-tiká im pwerta not can he-enter-PAST in house because it-closed-was the door He couldn't enter the house because the door was closed Mexicanero Nahuat91 Many dialects have also undergone a degree of simplification of their morphology which has caused some scholars to consider them to have ceased to be polysynthetic.92 Vocabulary Main article: Words of Nahuatl origin The tomato is native to Mexico and the Aztecs called the red variety xit�?matl whereas the green Currant tomato was called t�?matl - the source for the English word tomato. The tomato is native to Mexico and the Aztecs called the red variety xit�?matl whereas the green Currant tomato was called t�?matl - the source for the English word tomato. Many Nahuatl words have been borrowed into the Spanish language, most of which are terms designating things indigenous to the American continent. Some of these loans are restricted to Mexican or Central American Spanish, but others have entered all the varieties of Spanish in the world. A number of them, such as chocolate, tomato and avocado have made their way into many other languages via Spanish. Likewise a number of English words have been borrowed from Nahuatl through Spanish. Two of the most prominent are undoubtedly chocolate93 and tomato from Nahuatl tomatl. Other common words such as coyote from Nahuatl coyotl, avocado from Nahuatl ahuacatl and chile or chili from Nahuatl chilli. The word chicle is also derived from Nahuatl tzictli sticky stuff, chicle. Some other English words from Nahuatl are: Aztec, from aztecatl; cacao from Nahuatl cacahuatl 'shell, rind';94 ocelot from ocelotl.95 In Mexico many words for common everyday concepts attest to the close contact between Spanish and Nahuatl, so many in fact that entire dictionaries of mexicanismos words particular to Mexican Spanish have been published tracing Nahuatl etymologies, as well as Spanish words with origins in other indigenous languages. Many well-known toponyms also come from Nahuatl, including Mexico from the Nahuatl word for the Aztec capital mexihco and Guatemala from the word cuauhtēmallan.96 Writing and literature Writing Main article: Nahuatl orthography See also: Aztec writing and Aztec Codices The placenames Mapachtepec Raccoon Hill, Mazatlan Deer Place and Huitztlan Thorn Place written in the Aztec writing system. From the Codex Mendoza. The placenames Mapachtepec Raccoon Hill, Mazatlan Deer Place and Huitztlan Thorn Place written in the Aztec writing system. From the Codex Mendoza. Precolumbian Aztec writing used three basic means of expression: direct representation, or pictures of what was expressed; ideograms or logograms symbolically representing a thing or concept; and, to some degree, phonetic transcription, employing logograms meant to represent only the sound of a given word, to be interpreted according to the rebus principle. This writing system was adequate for keeping such records as genealogies, astronomical information, and tribute lists, but could not represent a full vocabulary of spoken language in the way that the writing systems of the old world or that of the Maya civilization could. Aztec writing was not meant to be read, but to be told; the elaborate codices were essentially pictographic aids for teaching, and long texts were memorized.97 The Spanish introduced the Roman script, which was used to record a large body of Aztec prose, poetry and mundane documentation such as testaments, administrative documents, legal letters, etc. In a matter of decades pictorial writing was completely replaced with the Latin alphabet.98 No standardized Latin orthography has been developed for Nahuatl, and no general consensus has arisen for the representation of many sounds in Nahuatl that are lacking in Spanish, such as long vowels and the glottal stop.99 The orthography most accurately representing the phonemes of Nahuatl was developed in the 17th century by the Jesuit Horacio Carochi. Carochi's orthography used two different accents: a macron to represent long vowels and a grave for the saltillo, and sometimes an acute accent for short vowels.100 This orthography did not achieve a wide following outside of the Jesuit community. When Nahuatl became the subject of focused linguistic studies in the 20th century, linguists acknowledged the need to represent all the phonemes of the language. Several practical orthographies were developed to transcribe the language, many using the Americanist transcription system. With the establishment of Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas in 2004, new attempts to create standardized orthographies for the different dialects were resumed; however to this day there is no single official orthography for Nahuatl. Apart from dialectal differences, major issues in transcribing Nahuatl include:101 whether or not to follow Spanish orthographic practice and write /k/ with c and qu, /kʷ/ with cu, /s/ with c/z or s, and /w/ with hu or u. how to write the saltillo phoneme in some dialects pronounced as a glottal stop ʔ and in others as an h, which has been spelled with j, h, ' apostrophe, or a grave accent on the preceding vowel, but which traditionally has often been omitted in writing.102 whether and how to represent vowel length, e.g. by double vowels or by the use of macrons. Literature Main article: Mesoamerican literature Among the indigenous languages of the Americas, Nahuatl's extensive corpus of surviving literature dating back to the 16th and 17th centuries may be considered unique.103 Nahuatl literature encompasses a diverse array of genres and styles, the documents themselves composed under many different circumstances. It appears that the pre-conquest Nahua had a distinction much like the European distinction between prose and poetry, the first called tlahtolli speech and the second cuicatl song.104 Nahuatl tlahtolli prose has been preserved in different forms. Annals and chronicles recount history, normally written from the perspective of a particular altepetl locally based polity and often combining mythical accounts with real events. Important works in this genre include those from Chalco written by Chimalpahin, from Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo, from Mexico-Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc and those of Texcoco by Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl. Many annals recount history year-by-year and are normally written by anonymous authors. These works are sometimes evidently based on pre-Columbian pictorial year counts that existed, such as the Cuauhtitlan annals and the Anales de Tlatelolco. Purely mythological narratives are also found, like the Legend of the Five Suns, the Aztec creation myth recounted in Codex Chimalpopoca. One of the most important works of prose written in Nahuatl is the twelve-volume compilation generally known as the Florentine Codex, produced in the mid-16th century by the Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahagún with the help of a number of Nahua informants. With this work Sahagún bestowed an enormous ethnographic description of the Nahua, written in side-by-side translations of Nahuatl and Spanish and illustrated throughout by color plates drawn by indigenous painters. Its volumes cover a diverse range of topics: Aztec history, material culture, social organization, religious and ceremonial life, rhetorical style and metaphors. The twelfth volume provides an indigenous perspective on the conquest itself. Sahagún also made a point of trying to document the richness of the Nahuatl language, stating: This work is like a dragnet to bring to light all the words of this language with their exact and metaphorical meanings, and all their ways of speaking, and most of their practices good and evil.105 Nahuatl poetry is preserved in principally two sources: the Cantares Mexicanos and the Romances de los señores de Nueva España, both collections of Aztec songs written down in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some songs may have been preserved through oral tradition from pre-conquest times until the time of their writing, for example the songs attributed to the poet-king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. Lockhart and Karttunen identify more than four distinct styles of songs, e.g. the icnocuicatl sad song, the xopancuicatl song of spring, melahuaccuicatl plain song and yaocuicatl song of war, each with distinct stylistic traits.106 Aztec poetry makes rich use of metaphoric imagery and themes and are lamentation of the brevity of human existence, the celebration of valiant warriors who die in battle, and the appreciation of the beauty of life.107 Stylistics The Aztecs distinguished between the at least two social registers of language: the language of commoners macehuallahtolli and the language of the nobility tecpillahtolli. The latter was marked by the use of a distinct rhetorical style. Since literacy was confined mainly to these higher social classes, most of the existing prose and poetical documents were written in this style. An important feature of this high rhetorical style of formal oratory was the use of parallelism,108 whereby the orator structured their speech in couplets consisting of two parallel phrases. For example: ye maca timiquican May we not die ye maca tipolihuican May we not perish109 Another kind of parallelism used is referred to by modern linguists as difrasismo, in which two phrases are symbolically combined to give a metaphorical reading. Classical Nahuatl was rich in such diphrasal metaphors, and a number of the primary-source language commentaries such as Sahagún's Florentine Codex and Andrés de Olmos' Arte describe and give examples of this particular rhetoric trait. Such difrasismos include: in xochitl, in cuicatl The flower, the song - meaning poetry110 in cuitlapilli, in atlapalli the tail, the wing - meaning the common people111 in toptli, in petlacalli the chest, the box meaning something secret112 in yollohtli, in eztli the heart, the blood - meaning cacao113 in iztlactli, in tenqualactli the drool, the spittle - meaning lies114 Sample text The sample text below is an excerpt from a statement issued in Nahuatl by Emiliano Zapata in 1918 in order to convince the Nahua towns in the area of Tlaxcala to join the Revolution against the regime of Venustiano Carranza. It is quoted from León-Portilla's book Los Manifiestos en Náhuatl de Emiliano Zapata 1978. The orthography employed in the letter is improvised, and does not distinguish long vowels and only sporadically marks saltillo with both h and accute accent, The original orthography has been retained.115 Tlanahuatil Panoloani An Altepeme de non cate itech nin tlalpan de netehuiloya den tlanahuatiani Arenas. Axcan cuan nonques tlalticpacchanéhque de non altepeme tlami quitzetzeloa neca tliltic amo cuali nemiliz Carrancista, noyolo pahpaqui ihuan itech nin mahuiztica, intoca netehuiloanime tlatzintlaneca, ihuan nanmechtitlanilia ze páhpaquilizticatlápaloli ihuan ica nochi noyolo niquinyolehua nonques altepeme aquihque cate quichihuazque netehuiliztle ipampa meláhqui tlanahuatil ihuan amo nen motenecahuilia quitlahtlaczazque in anmocualinemiliz. tiquintlahpaloa nonques netehuiloanime tlen mocuepan ican nin yolopaquilizticatequi, ihuan quixnamiqui in nexicoaliztle ipan non huei tehuile tlen aic hueliti tlami nian aic tlamiz zeme ica nitlamiliz in tliltic oquichtlanahuatiani, de neca moxicoani, teca mocaya de non zemihcac teixcuepa tlen itoca Venustiano Carranza que quimahuizquixtia in netehuiliztle ihuan quipinahtia totlalticpacnantzi Mexico zeme quimahuizpolóhtica. Message to be passed around To the towns that are located in the area that fought under General Arenas. Now, that the dwellers of this earth, of those towns, finish shaking out that black, evil life of the Carrancismo my heart is very happy and with the dignity in the name of those who fight in the ranks, and to You all I send a happy greeting. and with all of my heart I invite those towns, those who are there, to join the fight for a righteous mandate to not vainly issue statements, to not allow to be done away with your good way of life. We salute those fighters who turn towards this joyous labour and confront the greed in this great war, which can never end, nor will ever end until the end of the black tyrant of that glutton, who mocks and always cheat people and whose name is Venustiano Carranza, who takes the glory out of war and who shames our motherland, Mexico completely dishonouring it. See also List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin Mexican Spanish Notes ^ INEGI 2005, p. 3 ^ This word has several variant spellings, which include: Náhuatl, Naoatl, Nauatl, Nahuatl, Nawatl. In Mexican Spanish the standard spelling is náhuatl with an accent on the first syllable. ^ Suárez 1983, p. 149 ^ Canger 1980, p. 13 ^ Canger 2002, p. 195 ^ See Mesoamerican languages#Language vs. Dialect for a discussion on the difference between languages and dialects in Mesoamerica. ^ Canger 1988 ^ Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas PDF online reproduction. Diario Oficial de la Federación. Issued by the Cámara de Diputados del H. Congreso de la Unión 2003-03-13. Spanish. ^ By the provisions of Article IV: Las lenguas indígenas...y el español son lenguas nacionales...y tienen la misma validez en su territorio, localización y contexto en que se hablen. The indigenous languages...and Spanish are national languages...and have the same validity in their territory, location and context in which they are spoken. ^ See Canger 1980, p. 12; Kaufman 2001, p. 1. ^ See argument advanced in Hill 2001. ^ Kaufman 2001, pp. 6,12 ^ See arguments in Justeson et al. 1985, passim.; also notes in Kaufman 2001, pp. 3-6,12 ^ For summary of views on language at Teotihuacan, consult Cowgill 1992, pp. 240-242; Pasztory 1993 ^ Campbell 1997, p. 161; Justeson et al. 1985; Kaufman 2001, pp. 3-6,12 ^ The evidence for an earlier-than-thought Nahuatl presence in Mesoamerica is in the form of words of possible Nahuatl origins found in Maya inscriptions of an early date. For a survey of publications in this area, see for example Dakin and Wichmann 2000, Macri 2005, Macri and Looper 2003. ^ Cowgill 2003, p. 335; Pasztory 1993 ^ Dakin 1994; Kaufman 2001 ^ Dakin 1994; Kaufman 2001 ^ Suárez 1983, p. 149 ^ Canger 1988, p. 64 ^ Discussion on this southern migration may be found in Fowler 1985, p. 38. This is treated also in Kaufman 2001. ^ Kaufman 2001 ^ Carmack 1981, pp. 142-143 ^ For an account of early Spanish missionary activities and expansion into northern Mexico and the southwestern US, see Jackson 2000. The post-conquest presence of Nahua peoples well inside modern-day US territory is well documented. For example, a map of Santa Fe, New Mexico, drawn ca. 1768 by José de Urrutia shows an established pueblo village or barrio named Analco spread along the southern bank of the Santa Fe River, opposite to the Spanish town. This settlement of Analco, labelled E on the map, is accompanied by the text: Pueblo ò Barrio de Analco que debe su origen à los Tracaltecas que acompañaron à los primeros Eſpañoles que entraron à la Conquiſta de eſte Reino village or quarter of Analco, that owes its origins to the Tlaxcaltecs who accompanied the first Spaniards who entered into the conquest of this region. See reproduction of the Urrutia map and accompanying text in Wroth n.d.. ^ INAFED Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal 2005. Saltillo, Coahuila. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México online version at E-Local. INAFED, Secretaría de Gobernación. Retrieved on 2008-03-28. Spanish. The Tlaxcaltec community remained legally separate until the 19th century. ^ Pedro de Alvarado conquered Guatemala with the help of tens of thousands of Tlaxcaltec allies, who then settled outside of modern-day Antigua. Similar episodes occurred across El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras, with Nahuatl speakers settling in communities that were often named after them. In Honduras for example, two of these barrios are called Mexicapa; another in El Salvador is called Mexicanos. ^ Lockhart 1991, p. 12; Lockhart 1992 pp. 330-331 ^ Canger 1980, p. 14 ^ Suárez 1983, p. 165 ^ Suárez 1983, p. 5 ^ Suárez 1983, p. 165 ^ Map based on information appearing in Lastra de Suárez 1986, and Fowler 1985. ^ See for example Rolstad 2002, passim. ^ According to the Mexican national statistics institute INEGI, 51% of Nahuatl speakers are involved in the farming sector and 6 in 10 receive no wages or less than the minimum wage; see INEGI 2005, pp. 63-73. ^ Suárez 1983, p. 167 ^ Suárez, 1983, p. 168 ^ INEGI 2005, p. 49 ^ See discussions in Lastra de Suárez 1986, and Rolstad 2002. ^ INALI Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas n.d.. Presentación de la Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos. Difusión de INALI. INALI, Secretariat of Public Education. Retrieved on 2008-03-31.Spanish ^ Mica Rosenberg - Reuters 2008-02-22, written at Mexico City, Mexico City mayor wants to revive Aztec language online ion, The San Diego Union-Tribune San Diego, CA: Copley Press, http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/mexico/20080222-1333-mexico-language-.html. Retrieved on 25 March 2008 ^ Source: INEGI 2005. Percentages given are in comparison to the total population of the corresponding state. ^ See description in Campbell 1985. ^ According to IRIN-International, the Nawat Language Recovery Initiative project, there are no reliable figures for the contemporary numbers of speakers of Pipil / Nawat. Numbers may range anywhere from perhaps a few hundred people, perhaps only a few dozen. See IRIN 2004. ^ Boas 1917; Knab 1980 ^ See INEGI 2005, p. 35. In this analysis, monolinguals are counted as those who do not speak Spanish. It may be possible that some also speak other Nahuatl variants, or other indigenous languages. ^ Or put another way, more than 95% of the Nahuatl-speaking population in most states speak at least one other language, most usually Spanish. Nationally, the figure is about 86% of the total. See corresponding tables in INEGI 2005, p. 35. ^ Flores Farfán 2002, p. 229 ^ Launey 1992, p. 116 ^ See for example Canger 1988. ^ Hill Hill 1986 ^ Tuggy 1979 ^ Campbell 1985 ^ Canger 2001 ^ Wolgemuth 2002 ^ Suárez 1983, p. 20 ^ Canger 1988 ^ Campbell and Langacker 1978, p. 306 ^ See Lastra de Suárez's Las áreas dialectales del náhuatl moderno Lastra de Suárez, 1986 and Canger's article in IJAL, Nahuatl dialectology: A survey and some suggestions Canger, 1988. ^ Canger 1988 ^ Sischo 1979 ^ Tuggy 1979 ^ Amith 1989 ^ Canger 2001, p. 29 ^ Boas 1917 ^ Launey 1992 p.16 ^ Launey 1992 p.26 ^ Launey 1992 pp. 19-22 ^ See eg Sischo 1979 p. 312 for a brief description of these phenomena in Nahual of Michoacán ^ Launey 1992 p.27 ^ All examples given in this section and subsections are from Suárez 1983, pp. 61-63 unless otherwise noted. Glosses have been standardized. ^ Suaréz 1983, p. 63 ^ For example by Hill Hill 1986 in their description of Malinche Nahuatl grammar ^ for example by Launey 1992 in Chapter 13 where he describes this construction in classical Nahuatl ^ Suárez 1977 ^ Wolgemuth 2002 ^ Wolgemuth 2002, p. 35 ^ Suárez 1983 p. 61 ^ Suárez 1983, p. 81 ^ Suárez 1977, p. 61 ^ See Baker 1998 passim. for an advancement of this argument. ^ Launey 1992, pp. 36-37 ^ Sischo 1979 p.314 ^ Launey 1994 ^ Andrews 2003 ^ Launey 1994 passim. ^ Hill and Hill 1986, p.317 ^ The words pero, entender, lo-que, and en are all from Spanish. The use of the suffix -oa on a Spanish infinitive like entender, enabling the use of other Nahuatl verbal affixes, is standard. The sequence lo que tlen combines Spanish lo que 'what' with Nahuatl tlen also meaning 'what' to mean what else 'what'. en is a preposition and heads a prepositional phrase; traditionally Nahuatl had postpositions or relational nouns rather than prepositions. The stem mexihka, related to the name mexihko, 'Mexico', is of Nahuatl origin, but the suffix -ano is from Spanish, and it is probable that the whole word mexicano is a re-borrowing from Spanish back into Nahuatl. ^ See for example Hill Hill 1986 ^ Sischo 1979 p.314 ^ Canger2001 p.116 ^ see discussion on the loss of polysynthesis in Malinche Nahuatl in Hill Hill 1986 pp.249-340 ^ While there is no real doubt that the word chocolate comes from Nahuatl, the commonly given Nahuatl etymology /ʃokola:tl/ bitter water no longer seems to be tenable. Dakin and Wichmann 2000 suggest the correct etymology to be /�?ikola:tl/ - a word found in several modern Nahuatl dialects. ^ Dakin and Wichmann 2000 ^ ocelot. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 4th ed., online version. 2000. Ed. Joseph P. Pickett et al.. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ^ The Mexica used the word for the Kaqchikel capital Iximche in central Guatemala, but the word was extended to the entire zone in colonial times; see Carmack 1981, p. 143. ^ Lockhart 1992, pp. 327-329 ^ Lockhart 1992, pp.330-335 ^ Canger 2002, see in particular discussion on pp. 200-204. ^ Whorf et al. 1993 ^ Canger 2002, see discussion on pp. 200-204 ^ Canger 2002, p. 203 ^ Canger 2002, p. 300 ^ León-Portilla 1985, p. 12 ^ Sahagún 1950-82, part I:47 ^ Lockhart and Karttunen 1980 ^ León-Portilla 1985, pp. 12-20 ^ Bright 1990 ^ Bright 1990, p. 440 ^ Sahagún 1950-82, vol. VI fol. 202V ^ Sahagún 1950-82, vol. VI fol. 202V ^ Sahagún 1950-82, vol. VI fol. 203R ^ Sahagún 1950-82, vol. VI fol. 211V ^ Sahagún 1950-82, vol. VI fol. 207V ^ It has only been modified to reflect word boundaries better than the original. Bibliography Amith, Jonathan D. 1989. Acento en el nahuatl de Oapan. 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Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of Its Adverbs 1645, by Horacio Carochi, James Lockhart trans., ed., and notes, Stanford and Los Angeles: Stanford University Press, UCLA Latin American Center Publications. ISBN 0-8047-4281-2. OCLC 46858462. Canger, Una 1980. Five Studies Inspired by Náhuatl Verbs in -oa, Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague, Vol. XIX. Copenhagen: The Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen; distributed by C.A. Reitzels Boghandel. ISBN 87-7421-254-0. OCLC 7276374. Canger, Una 1988. Nahuatl dialectology: A survey and some suggestions. International Journal of American Linguistics 54 1: pp.28-72. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. doi:10.1086/466074. OCLC 1753556. Canger, Una 2001. Mexicanero de la Sierra Madre Occidental, Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México, #24. México D.F.: El Colegio de México. ISBN 968-12-1041-7. OCLC 49212643. Spanish Canger, Una 2002. An interactive dictionary and text corpus, in William Frawley, Pamela Munro and Kenneth C. Hill eds.: Making dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous Languages of the Americas. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp.195-218. ISBN 0-520-22995-9. OCLC 47863283. Cowgill, George L. 1992. Teotihuacan Glyphs and Imagery in the Light of Some Early Colonial Texts, in Janet Catherine Berlo ed.: Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, pp.231-246. ISBN 0-88402-205-6. OCLC 25547129. Cowgill, George L. 2003. Teotihuacan and Early Classic Interaction: A Perspective from Outside the Maya Region, in Geoffrey E. Braswell ed.: The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.315-336. ISBN 0-292-70587-5. OCLC 49936017. Curl, John 2005. Ancient American Poets: The Flower Songs of Nezahualcoyotl. Tempe: Bilingual Press. ISBN 1-931010-21-8. OCLC 52813965. Dakin, Karen 1982. La evolución fonológica del Protonáhuatl. México D.F.: National Autonomous University of Mexico, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas. ISBN 968-58-0292-0. OCLC 10216962. Spanish Dakin, Karen 1994. El náhuatl en el yutoazteca sureño: algunas isoglosas gramaticales y fonológicas, in Carolyn MacKay and Verónica Vázquez eds.: Investigaciones lingüísticas en Mesoamérica, Estudios sobre Lenguas Americanas, no. 1. México D.F.: National Autonomous University of Mexico, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas, Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas, pp.3-86. ISBN 968-36-4055-9. OCLC 34716589. Spanish Dakin, Karen; and Søren Wichmann 2000. Cacao and Chocolate: A Uto-Aztecan Perspective PDF online reprint. Ancient Mesoamerica 11 1: pp.55-75. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/S0956536100111058. OCLC 88396015. Flores Farfán, José Antonio 1999. Cuatreros Somos y Toindioma Hablamos. Contactos y Conflictos entre el Náhuatl y el Español en el Sur de México. Tlalpán D.F.: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social. ISBN 968-49-6344-0. OCLC 42476969. Spanish Flores Farfán, José Antonio 2002. The Use of Multimedia and the Arts in Language Revitalization, Maintenance, and Development: The Case of the Balsas Nahuas of Guerrero, Mexico PDF in Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Stabilizing Indigenous Languages 7th, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, May 11-14, 2000. Barbara Jane Burnaby and John Allan Reyhner eds. Indigenous Languages across the Community: pp.225-236, Flagstaff, AZ: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. OCLC 95062129. Flores Farfán, José Antonio 2006. Intervention in indigenous education. Culturally-sensitive materials for bilingual Nahuatl speakers, in Margarita G. Hidalgo ed.: Mexican Indigenous Languages at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century, Contributions to the sociology of language, no. 91. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp.301-324. ISBN 978-3-11-018597-3. OCLC 62090844. Fowler, William R., Jr. 1985. Ethnohistoric Sources on the Pipil Nicarao: A Critical Analysis. Ethnohistory 32 1: pp.37-62. Columbus, OH: American Indian Ethnohistoric Conference. doi:10.2307/482092. OCLC 62217753. Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. Ed. 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World online version, Fifteenth ion, Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. OCLC 60338097. Retrieved on 2006-12-06. Hill, Jane H. 2001. Proto-Uto-Aztecan: A Community of Cultivators in Central Mexico?. American Anthropologist 103 4: pp.913-934. Arlington, VA: American Anthropological Association and affiliated societies. doi:10.1525/aa.2001.103.4.913. OCLC 192932283. Hill, Jane H.; and Kenneth C. Hill 1986. Speaking Mexicano: Dynamics of Syncretic Language in Central Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-816-50898-4. OCLC 13126530. INEGI Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, Geografia e Informática 2005. Perfil sociodemográfica de la populación hablante de náhuatl PDF, Publicación única, XII Censo General de Población y Vivienda 2000, Aguascalientes, Mex.: INEGI. ISBN 970-13-4491-X. Retrieved on 2008-12-02. Spanish IRIN Iniciativa para la Recuperación del Idioma Náhuat 2004. IRIN-International homepage. The Nawat Language Recovery Initiative. IRIN. Retrieved on 2008-03-31. Jackson, Robert H. 2000. From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest, Latin American Realities hardcover series. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0597-X. OCLC 49415084. Justeson, John S.; William M. Norman, Lyle Campbell, and Terrence Kaufman 1985. The Foreign Impact on Lowland Mayan Language and Script, Middle American Research Institute Publications, no. 53. New Orleans, LA: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University. ISBN 0-939238-82-9. OCLC 12444550. Karttunen, Frances; and James Lockhart 1980. La estructura de la poesía nahuatl vista por sus variantes. Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl 14: pp.15-64. México, D.F.: Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, National Autonomous University of Mexico. ISSN 0071-1675. OCLC 1568281. Spanish Kaufman, Terrence 2001. The history of the Nawa language group from the earliest times to the sixteenth century: some initial results PDF. Revised March 2001. Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica. Retrieved on 2007-10-07. Knab, Tim 1980. When Is a Language Really Dead: The Case of Pochutec. International Journal of American Linguistics 46 3: pp.230-233. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, in cooperation with the Conference on American Indian Languages. doi:10.1086/465658. OCLC 1753556. Langacker, Ronald W 1977. Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 1: An Overview of Uto-Aztecan Grammar, Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics, publication no. 56. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington. ISBN 0-88312-070-4. OCLC 6087919. Lastra de Suárez, Yolanda 1986. Las áreas dialectales del náhuatl moderno, Serie antropológica, no. 62. Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F.: National Autonomous University of Mexico, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. ISBN 968-8377-44-9. OCLC 19632019. Spanish Launey, Michel 1979. Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques, vol. 1: Grammaire, Série ethnolinguistique amérindienne. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-85802-107-4. French Launey, Michel 1980. Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques, vol. 2: Littérature, Série ethnolinguistique amérindienne. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-85802-155-4. French Nahuatl Launey, Michel 1992. Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura náhuatl. México D.F.: National Autonomous University of Mexico, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. ISBN 968-36-1944-4. OCLC 29376295. Spanish Launey, Michel 1994. Une grammaire omniprédicative: Essai sur la morphosyntaxe du nahuatl classique. Paris: CNRS ions. ISBN 2-271-05072-3. OCLC 30738298. French León-Portilla, Miguel 1978. Los manifiestos en náhuatl de Emiliano Zapata.. Cuernavaca, Mex.: National Autonomous University of Mexico, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. OCLC 4977935. Spanish León-Portilla, Miguel 1985. Nahuatl literature, in Munro S. Edmonson Volume ed., with Patricia A. Andrews: Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 3: Literatures, Victoria Reifler Bricker General ed., Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.7-43. ISBN 0-292-77577-6. OCLC 11785568. Lockhart, James 1991. Nahuas and Spaniards: Postconquest Mexican History and Philology, UCLA Latin American studies vol. 76, Nahuatl studies series no. 3. Stanford and Los Angeles, CA: Stanford University Press and UCLA Latin American Center Publications. ISBN 0-8047-1953-5. OCLC 23286637. Lockhart, James 1992. The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1927-6. OCLC 24283718. Macri, Martha J. 2005. Nahua loan words from the early classic period: Words for cacao preparation on a Río Azul ceramic vessel. Ancient Mesoamerica 16 2: pp.321-326. London and New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/S0956536105050200. OCLC 87656385. Macri, Martha J.; and Matthew G. Looper 2003. Nahua in ancient Mesoamerica: Evidence from Maya inscriptions. Ancient Mesoamerica 14 2: pp.285-297. London and New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/S0956536103142046 inactive 2008-06-25. OCLC 89805456. Olmos, Fray Andrés de 1547 MS. 1993. Arte de la lengua mexicana: concluido en el Convento de San Andrés de Ueytlalpan, en la provincia de la Totonacapan que es en la Nueva España, el 1o. de enero de 1547, 2 vols. Facsimile ion of original MS., Ascensión León-Portilla and Miguel León-Portilla intro., transliteration, and notes, Madrid: Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica, Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana. ISBN 84-7232-684-5. OCLC 165270583. Spanish Pasztory, Esther 1993. An Image Is Worth a Thousand Words: Teotihuacan and the Meanings of Style in Classic Mesoamerica, in Don Stephen Rice ed.: Latin American horizons: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 11th and 12th October 1986. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Trustees for Harvard University, pp.113-146. ISBN 0-88402-207-2. OCLC 25872400. Rincón, Antonio del 1595 1885. Arte mexicana compuesta por el padre Antonio Del Rincón de la compañia de Jesus: Dirigido al illustrissimo y reverendissimo s. Don Diego Romano obispo de Tlaxcallan, y del consejo de su magestad, c. En Mexico en casa de Pedro, Balli. 1595 PDF facsimile, University of Chicago Library digital collections, Reprinted 1885 under the care of Dr. Antonio Peñafiel, México D.F.: Oficina tip. de la Secretaría de fomento. OCLC 162761360. Spanish Rolstad, Kellie 2002. Language death in Central Mexico: The decline of Spanish-Nahuatl bilingualism and the new bilingual maintenance programs. The Bilingual review. La Revista bilingüe 26 1: pp.3-18. Tempe: Hispanic Research Center, Arizona State University. ISSN 0094-5366. OCLC 1084374. Sahagún, Bernardino de ca. 1540-85 1950-82. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols. in 12, Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J.O. Anderson eds., trans., notes and illus., translation of Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España, vols. I-XII, Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City: School of American Research and the University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-082-X. OCLC 276351. Sahagún, Bernardino de ca.1558-61 1997. Primeros Memoriales, Thelma D. Sullivan English trans. and paleography of Nahuatl text, with H.B. Nicholson, Arthur J.O. Anderson, Charles E. Dibble, Eloise Quiñones Keber, and Wayne Ruwet completion, revisions, and ed., The Civilization of the American Indians Series vol. 200, part 2, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2909-9. OCLC 35848992. Sischo, William R. 1979. Michoacán Nahual, in Ronald W. Langacker ed.: Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches, Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington, pp.307-380. ISBN 0-8831-2072-0. OCLC 6086368. Suárez, Jorge A. 1977. La influencia del español en la estructura gramatical del náhuatl. Anuario de Letras. Revista de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras 15: pp.115-164. Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F.: National Autonomous University of Mexico, Centro de Linguística Hispánica. ISSN 0185-1373. OCLC 48341068. Spanish Suárez, Jorge A. 1983. The Mesoamerian Indian Languages, Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22834-4. OCLC 8034800. Sullivan, Thelma D. 1988. Compendium of Náhuatl Grammar, Thelma D. Sullivan and Neville Stiles trans., Wick R. Miller and Karen Dakin eds., English translation of Compendio de la gramática náhuatl, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-874-80282-2. OCLC 17982711. Tuggy, David H. 1979. Tetelcingo Náhuatl, in Ronald Langacker ed.: Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches, Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington, pp.1-140. ISBN 0-88312-072-0. OCLC 6086368. Voegelin, Charles F.; Florence M. Voegelin and Kenneth L. Hale 1962. Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan I: Phonology Supplement to International Journal of American linguistics, vol. 28, no. 1, Indiana University publications in anthropology and linguistics, Memoir 17, Baltimore MD: Waverly Press. OCLC 55576894. Whorf, Benjamin Lee; Frances Karttunen and Lyle Campbell 1993. Pitch Tone and the Saltillo in Modern and Ancient Nahuatl. International Journal of American Linguistics 59 2: pp.165-223. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. doi:10.1086/466194. Wichmann, Søren 1998. A conservative look at diffusion involving Mixe-Zoquean languages, in Roger Blench and Matthew Spriggs eds.: Archaeology and Language, vol. II: Correlating archaeological and linguistic hypotheses, One World Archaeology series, no. 29. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11761-5. OCLC 35673530. Wimmer, Alexis 2006. Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl classique online version, incorporating reproductions from Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl ou mexicaine 1885, by Rémi Siméon. Retrieved on 2008-02-04. French Nahuatl Wolgemuth, Carl 2002. Gramática Náhuatl melaʼtájto̱l: de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz PDF online ion, Sharon Stark and Albert Bickford online eds., 2nd ion, México D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. ISBN 968-31-0315-4. OCLC 51555383. Wroth, William H. n.d.. Santa Fe. New Mexico Digital History Project. New Mexico Office of the State Historian. Retrieved on 2008-03-31. Further reading Dictionaries of Classical Nahuatl de Molina, Fray Alonso: Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana y Mexicana y Castellana. 1555 Reprint: Porrúa México 1992 Karttunen, Frances, An analytical dictionary of Náhuatl. Norman 1992 Siméon, Rémi: Diccionario de la Lengua Náhuatl o Mexicana. Paris 1885 Reprint: México 2001 Grammars of Classical Nahuatl Carochi, Horacio. Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of its Adverbs 1645 Translated by James Lockhart. Stanford University Press. 2001. Lockhart, James: Nahuatl as written: lessons in older written Nahuatl, with copious examples and texts, Stanford 2001 Campbell, Joe and Frances Karttunen, Foundation course in Náhuatl grammar. Austin 1989 Launey, Michel. Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura Náhuatl. México D.F.: UNAM. 1992 Spanish Andrews, J. Richard. Introduction to Classical Nahuatl University of Oklahoma Press: 2003 revised ion Modern Dialects Herrera, Fermin. Nahuatl Aztec-English / English-Nahuatl Aztec Concise Dictionary, Hippocrene Books, Inc., 2004 Ronald W. Langacker ed.: Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches, Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington, pp. 1-140. ISBN 0883120720. OCLC 6086368. 1979. Contains studies of Nahuatl from Michoacan, Tetelcingo, Huasteca and North Puebla Canger, Una. Mexicanero de la Sierra Madre Occidental, Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México, #24. México D.F.: El Colegio de México. ISBN 968-12-1041-7. OCLC 49212643. 2001 Spanish Campbell, Lyle. The Pipil Language of El Salvador, Mouton Grammar Library No. 1. Berlin: Mouton Publishers. 1985. ISBN 0-89925-040-8. OCLC 13433705. Wolgemuth, Carl. Gramática Náhuatl melaʼtájto̱l de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz, 2nd ion. 2002. Spanish Miscellaneous The Nahua Newsletter: ed by the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies of the Indiana University Chief or Alan Sandstrom Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl: special interest-yearbook of the Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas IIH of the Universidad Autónoma de México UNAM, Ed.: Miguel Leon Portilla External links Nahuatl ion of , the free encyclopedia Look up nahuatl in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. For a list of words relating to of the Nahuatl language, see the Nahuatl language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary For a list of words relating to of Nahuatl origin, see the Nahuatl derivations category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Wikibooks Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Nahuatl Ethnologue Náhuatl dialects Nahuatl Aztec family, SIL-Mexico, with subsites on some specific variants Náhuatl-French dictionary Includes basic grammar Books at Project Gutenberg in Nahuatl Featured article Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Nahuatl Categories: Featured articles | Nahuatl | Agglutinative languages | Polysynthetic languages | Indigenous languages of Mexico | Uto-Aztecan languages | Mesoamerican languagesHidden categories: Articles including recorded pronunciations | Pages with DOIs broken since 2008 Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages አማርኛ Aymar Brezhoneg Българ�?ки Català Česky Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Estremeñu Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македон�?ки N�?huatl Nederlands ‪Norsk bokmål‬ ‪Norsk nynorsk‬ Occitan Polski Português Română Runa Simi Ру�?�?кий Simple English Sloven�?ina Slovenš�?ina Срп�?ки / Srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Україн�?ька Walon 中文 This page was last modified on 11 August 2008, at 14:45

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