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20-September-2008 09:29:06 - Molybdenum 42 niobium â†? molybdenum → technetium Cr ↑ Mo ↓ W Periodic Table - Extended Periodic Table General Name, Symbol, Number molybdenum, Mo, 42 Element category transition metals Group, Period, Block 6, 5, d Appearance gray metallic Standard atomic weight 95.942 g·mol-1 Electron configuration Kr 4d5 5s1 Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 13, 1 Physical properties Phase solid Density near r.t. 10.28 g·cm-3 Liquid density at m.p. 9.33 g·cm-3 Melting point 2896 K 2623 °C, 4753 °F Boiling point 4912 K 4639 °C, 8382 °F Heat of fusion 37.48 kJ·mol-1 Heat of vaporization 617 kJ·mol-1 Specific heat capacity 25 °C 24.06 J·mol-1·K-1 Vapor pressure PPa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at TK 2742 2994 3312 3707 4212 4879 Atomic properties Crystal structure cubic body centered Oxidation states 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 11 strongly acidic oxide Electronegativity 2.16 Pauling scale Ionization energies more 1st: 684.3 kJ·mol-1 2nd: 1560 kJ·mol-1 3rd: 2618 kJ·mol-1 Atomic radius 145 pm Atomic radius calc. 190 pm Covalent radius 145 pm Miscellaneous Magnetic ordering no data Electrical resistivity 20 °C 53.4 n Ω·m Thermal conductivity 300 K 138 W·m-1·K-1 Thermal expansion 25 °C 4.8 µm·m-1·K-1 Speed of sound thin rod r.t. 5400 m·s-1 Young's modulus 329 GPa Shear modulus 126 GPa Bulk modulus 230 GPa Poisson ratio 0.31 Mohs hardness 5.5 Vickers hardness 1530 MPa Brinell hardness 1500 MPa CAS registry number 7439-98-7 Selected isotopes Main article: Isotopes of molybdenum iso NA half-life DM DE MeV DP 92Mo 14.84% 92Mo is stable with 50 neutrons 93Mo syn 4×103 y ε - 93Nb 94Mo 9.25% 94Mo is stable with 52 neutrons 95Mo 15.92% 95Mo is stable with 53 neutrons 96Mo 16.68% 96Mo is stable with 54 neutrons 97Mo 9.55% 97Mo is stable with 55 neutrons 98Mo 24.13% 98Mo is stable with 56 neutrons 99Mo syn 65.94 h β- 0.436, 1.214 99Tc γ 0.74, 0.36, 0.14 - 100Mo 9.63% 7.8×1018 y β-β- 3.04 100Ru References Molybdenum pronounced /məˈlɪbdÉ™nÉ™m/, from the Greek meaning lead-like, is a Group 6 chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42. It has the sixth-highest melting point of any element, and for this reason it is often used in high-strength steel alloys. Molybdenum is found in trace amounts in plants and animals, although excess molybdenum can be toxic in some animals. Molybdenum was discovered in 1778 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele and first isolated in 1781 by Peter Jacob Hjelm. Contents 1 Characteristics 2 Isotopes 3 Occurrence 4 Compounds 5 Biological role 5.1 Copper-molybdenum antagonism 6 Applications 7 History 8 Precautions 9 Supply and demand 10 References 11 External links Characteristics Molybdenum is a transition metal with an electronegativity of 1.8 on the Pauling scale and an atomic mass of 95.9 g/mole.2 It does not react with oxygen or water at room temperature. At elevated temperatures, molybdenum trioxide is formed in the reaction 2Mo + 3O2 → 2MoO3.3 In its pure metal form, molybdenum is silvery white with a Mohs hardness of 5.5, though it is somewhat more ductile than tungsten. It has a melting point of 2623°C, and only tantalum, osmium, rhenium, and tungsten have higher melting points.4 Molybdenum burns only at temperatures above 600°C.5 It also has the lowest heating expansion of any commercially used metal.6 Molybdenum has a value of approximately $65,000 per tonne as of 4 May 2007. It maintained a price at or near $10,000 per tonne from 1997 through 2002, and reached a high of $103,000 per tonne in June 2005.7 Isotopes Main article: Isotopes of molybdenum There are 35 known isotopes of molybdenum ranging in atomic mass from 83 to 117, as well as four metastable nuclear isomers. Seven isotopes occur naturally, with atomic masses of 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100. Of these naturally occurring isotopes, five are stable, with atomic masses from 94 to 98. All unstable isotopes of molybdenum decay into isotopes of niobium, technetium, and ruthenium.8 Molybdenum-92 and molybdenum-100 are the only naturally occurring isotopes that are not stable. Molybdenum-100 has a half-life of approximately 1×1019 y and undergoes double beta decay into ruthenium-100. Molybdenum-98 is the most common isotope, comprising 24.14% of all molybdenum. Molybdenum isotopes with mass numbers from 111 to 117 all have half-lives of approximately .15 μs.8 Occurrence Molybdenum output in 2005 Molybdenum output in 2005 The world's largest producers of molybdenum materials are the United States, Canada, Chile, Russia, and China.96 Though molybdenum is found in such minerals as wulfenite PbMoO4 and powellite CaMoO4, the main commercial source of molybdenum is molybdenite MoS2. Molybdenum is mined as a principal ore, and is also recovered as a byproduct of copper and tungsten mining.4 Large mines in Colorado Climax and in British Columbia yield molybdenite, while many porphyry copper deposits such as the Chuquicamata mine in northern Chile produce molybdenum as a byproduct of copper mining. The Knaben mine in southern Norway was opened in 1885, making it the first molybdenum mine. It remained open until 1973. Molybdenum is the 42nd-most-abundant element in the universe, and the 25th-most-abundant element in Earth's oceans, with an average of 10.8 mt/km³.5 The Russian Luna 24 mission discovered a single molybdenum-bearing grain 1 × 0.6 µm in a pyroxene fragment taken from Mare Crisium on the Moon.10 A side product of molybdenum mining is rhenium. As it is always present in small varying quantities in molybdenite, the only commercial source for rhenium is molybdenum mines. Compounds See also: Category:Molybdenum compounds or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. December 2007 Molybdenum has several common oxidation states, +2 +3 +4 +5 and +6. The highest oxidation state is common in the molybdenumVI oxide MoO3 while the normal sulfur compound is molybdenum disulfide MoS2. The broad range of oxidation states shows up in the chlorides of molybdenum: MolybdenumII chloride MoCl2 yellow solid, MolybdenumIII chloride MoCl3 dark red solid, MolybdenumV chloride MoCl5 dark green solid, MolybdenumVI chloride MoCl6 brown solid, Like chromium and some other transition metals molybdenum is able to form quadruple bonds Biological role The most important use of the molybdenum atom in living organisms is as a metal hetero-atom at the active site in certain enzymes. In nitrogen fixation in certain bacteria, the nitrogenase enzyme which is involved in the terminal step of reducing molecular nitrogen, usually contains molybdenum in the active site though replacement of Mo with iron or vanadium is known. In March 2008, researchers reported that they had found strong evidence for the hypothesis that a scarcity of molybdenum in the earth's early oceans was a limiting factor in the further evolution of eukaryotic life which includes all plants and animals as eukaryotes cannot fix nitrogen and must acquire it from prokaryotic bacteria. 1 2 The scarcity of molybdenum resulted from the relative lack of oxygen in the early ocean. Oxygen dissolved in seawater is the primary mechanism for dissolving molybdenum from minerals on the sea bottom. Though molybdenum forms compounds with various organic molecules, including carbohydrates and amino acids, it is transported throughout the human body as MoO42-.11 Molybdenum is present in approximately 20 enzymes in animals, including aldehyde oxidase, sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase.6 In some animals, the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid, a process of purine catabolism, is catalyzed by xanthine oxidase, a molybdenum-containing enzyme. The activity of xanthine oxidase is directly proportional to the amount of molybdenum in the body. However, an extremely high concentration of molybdenum reverses the trend, and can act as an inhibitor in both purine catabolism and other processes. Molybdenum concentrations also affect protein synthesis, metabolism, and growth.11 These enzymes in plants and animals catalyse the reaction of oxygen in small molecules, as part of the regulation of nitrogen-, sulfur- and carbon cycles. In a 70 kg human body, there is approximately 9.3 mg molybdenum, comprising .00001% of the total body mass.12 It occurs in higher concentrations in the liver and kidneys, and in lower concentrations in the vertebrae.5 Molybdenum is also present within human tooth enamel and may help prevent the decaying thereof.13 Pork, lamb, and beef liver each have approximately 1.5 parts molybdenum per million. Other significant dietary sources include green beans, eggs, sunflower seeds, wheat flour, lentils, and cereal grain.6 The average daily intake of molybdenum is .3 mg. Acute toxicity hasn't been seen in humans, and the toxicity depends strongly on the chemical state. Rats show LD50 as low as 180 mg/kg for some Mo compounds.14 Molybdenum deficiency is not usually seen in healthy people.15 Sodium tungstate is a competitive inhibitor of molybdenum. Dietary tungsten reduces the concentration of molybdenum in tissues.5 Copper-molybdenum antagonism High amounts of molybdenum can interfere with the body's uptake of copper, both by preventing plasma proteins from binding the copper and by increasing the amount of copper that is excreted in urine. Ruminants that consume high amounts of molybdenum develop symptoms including diarrhea, stunted growth, anemia, and achromotrichia. These symptoms can be alleviated by the administration of more copper into the system, both in dietary form and by injection.16 The condition can be aggravated by excess sulfur.5 Applications The ability of molybdenum to withstand extreme temperatures without significantly expanding or softening makes it useful in applications that involve intense heat, including the manufacture of aircraft parts, electrical contacts, industrial motors, and filaments.176 Molybdenum is also used in alloys for its high corrosion resistance and weldability.518 Most high-strength steel alloys are .25% to 8% molybdenum.4 Despite being used in such small portions, more than 43 million kg of molybdenum is used as an alloying agent each year in stainless steels, tool steels, cast irons, and high-temperature superalloys.5 Because of its lower density and more stable price, molybdenum is implemented in the place of tungsten.5 Molybdenum can be implemented both as an alloying agent and as a flame-resistant coating for other metals. Although its melting point is 2623 °C, molybdenum rapidly oxidizes at temperatures above 760 °C, making it better-suited for use in vacuum environments.17 Molybdenum 99 is used as a parent radioisotope to the radioisotope Technetium 99, which is used in many medical procedures Molybdenum disulfide MoS2 is used as a lubricant and an agent. It forms strong films on metallic surfaces, and is highly resistant to both extreme temperatures and high pressure, and for this reason, it is a common additive to engine motor oil; in case of a catastrophic failure, the thin layer of molybdenum prevents metal-on-metal contact. Lead molybdate co-precipitated with lead chromate and lead sulfate is a bright-orange pigment used with ceramics and plastics.19 Molybdenum trioxide MoO3 is used as an adhesive between enamels and metals.20 Molybdenum powder is used as a fertilizer for some plants, such as cauliflower.5 Also used in NO, NO2, NOx analyzers in power plants for pollution controls. At 350 °C the element acts as a catalyst for NO2/NOx to form only NO molecules for consistent readings by infrared light. History Molybdenite from the Greek Μόλυβδος molybdos, meaning lead,4 the principal ore from which molybdenum is now extracted, was previously known as molybdena. Molybdena was confused with and often implemented as though it were graphite. Even when the two ores were distinguishable, molybdena was thought to be a lead ore.6 In 1754, Bengt Qvist examined the mineral and determined that it did not contain lead.21 It was not until 1778 that Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele realized molybdena was neither graphite nor lead.2022 He and other chemists then correctly assumed that it was the ore of a distinct new element, named molybdenum for the mineral in which it was discovered. Peter Jacob Hjelm successfully isolated molybdenum using carbon and linseed oil in 1781.623 For a long time there was no industrial use for molybdenum. The French Schneider Electrics company produced the first steel molybdenum alloy armor plates in 1894. Until World War I most other armor factories also used molybdenum alloys. In World War I, some British tanks were protected by 75 mm manganese plating, but this proved to be ineffective. The manganese plates were then replaced with 25 mm molybdenum plating. These allowed for higher speed, greater maneuverability, and, despite being thinner, better protection.6 The high demand of molybdenum in World War I and World War II and the steep decrease after the wars had a great influence on prices and production of molybdenum. Precautions Molybdenum dusts and fumes, as can be generated by mining or metalworking, are not toxic. There are no long-term effects associated with exposure to molybdenum; however, prolonged exposure can cause irritation to the eyes and skin. The direct inhalation or ingestion of molybdenum should also be avoided.24 OSHA regulations specify the maximum permissible molybdenum exposure in an 8-hour day to be 5 mg/m³. Chronic exposure to 60 to 600 mg Mo/m³ can cause symptoms including fatigue, headaches, and joint pains.25 Supply and demand Although current molybdenum production meets demand, refiners, or roasters, are expected to run into a shortfall between 2009 and 2015, depending on demand. A roaster processes the molybdenum into a fine powder, pellets, or other forms. Total world molybdenum roaster capacity is currently 320 million pounds per year, barely enough to meet demand. There is not much excess roasting capacity, and no one is actively permitting for the production of any new roasters in the United States. Global roaster capacity also looks limited, and a future roaster shortage is predicted. The data above are based on the assumption that mines will be able to increase output. Western demand is projected to increase by around 3 percent annually, while China and the CIS demand is projected to increase by around 10 percent annually, increasing overall global demand by around 4.5 percent annually. Increasing demand can be attributed to two main factors. Hydroprocessing catalysts are becoming essential for crude oil. The other contributing factor is the increase in nuclear reactor construction. There are 48 nuclear reactors to be built by 2013, and approximately 100 are to be built by 2020. The International Molybdenum Association IMOA says that an average reactor contains about 520,000 feet 160,000 m of stainless steel alloy. Some larger reactors contain over 1 million feet of stainless steel alloy. Unless molybdenum mine production picks up at a rapid pace, shortfalls of the metal are expected to arrive around 2009. 26 References ^ Molybdenum: molybdenumI fluoride compound data. OpenMOPAC.net. Retrieved on 2007-12-10. ^ Properties of Molybdenum. Integral Scientist Periodic Table. Qivx, Inc. 2003. Retrieved on 2007-06-10. ^ Winter, Mark. Chemistry. Molybdenum. The University of Sheffield. Retrieved on 2007-06-10. ^ a b c d Lide, David R., ed. 1994, Molybdenum, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 4, Chemical Rubber Publishing Company, pp. 18, 0-8493-0474-1 ^ a b c d e f g h i Considine, Glenn D., ed. 2005, Molybdenum, Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry, New York: Wylie-Interscience, pp. 1038-1040, 0-471-61525-0 ^ a b c d e f g h Emsley, John 2001. Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 262-266. 0-19-850341-5. ^ Dynamic Prices and Charts for Molybdenum. InfoMine Inc. 2007. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. ^ a b Lide, David R., ed. 2006, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 11, CRC, pp. 87-88, 0-8493-0487-3 ^ Lide, David R., ed. 2006, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 4, Chemical Rubber Publishing Company, pp. 22-23, 0-8493-0487-3 ^ American Mineralogist, Volume 87, pages 181-184, 2002. Retrieved on 2007-04-09. ^ a b Mitchell, Phillip C. H. 2003. Overview of Environment Database. International Molybdenum Association. Retrieved on 2007-05-05. ^ Lide, David R., ed. 2006, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 7, Chemical Rubber Publishing Company, pp. 18, 0-8493-0487-3 ^ Ismail, Mumtaz. Dental Problems and Diet. Health and Nutrition. Bawarchi. Retrieved on 2007-05-19. ^ Risk Assessment Information System: Toxicity Summary for Molybdenum. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. ^ Nutrient Reference Values for Australia. National Medical and Health Research Council Australia. Retrieved on 2008-04-23. ^ Suttle, N. F. December 1974. Recent studies of the copper-molybdenum antagonism. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 33 3: 299-305. CABI Publishing. doi:10.1079/PNS19740053. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. ^ a b Molybdenum. AZoM.com Pty. Limited 2007. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. ^ Molybdenum Statistics and Information. U.S. Geological Survey 2007-05-10. Retrieved on 2007-05-10. ^ International Molybdenum Association, www.moly.imoa.info ^ a b Gagnon, Steve. Molybdenum. Jefferson Science Associates, LLC. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. ^ Van der Krogt, Peter 2006-01-10. Molybdenum. Elementymology Elements Multidict. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. ^ C. W. K. Scheele 1779. Versuche mit Wasserbley;Molybdaena dead link - Scholar search. svenska vetensk. Academ. Handlingar 40: 238. ^ P. J. Hjelm 1788. Versuche mit Molybdäna, und Reduction der selben Erde dead link - Scholar search. svenska vetensk. Academ. Handlingar 49: 268. ^ Material Safety Data Sheet - Molybdenum. The REMBAR Company, Inc. 2000-09-19. Retrieved on 2007-05-13. ^ NIOSH Documentation for ILDHs Molybdenum. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 1996-08-16. Retrieved on 2007-05-31. ^ Nick Jones. By Any Other Name. Whiskey and Gunpowder. February 28, 2008 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Molybdenum Look up molybdenum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. WebElements.com - Molybdenum International Molybdenum Association - Main page v d e Periodic table H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Lanthanoids Actinoids Transition metals Other metals Metalloids Other nonmetals Halogens Noble gases Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Molybdenum Categories: Chemical elements | Dietary minerals | Molybdenum | Transition metals | Refractory materialsHidden categories: All articles with dead external links | Articles with dead external links since June 2008 | Articles to be expanded since December 2007 | All articles to be expanded Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages Afrikaans العربية AzÉ™rbaycan বাংলা БеларуÑ?каÑ? Bosanski БългарÑ?ки Català Чăвашла ÄŒesky Corsu Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Ù?ارسی Français Furlan Gaelg í•œêµì–´ Õ€Õ¡ÕµÕ¥Ö€Õ¥Õ¶ हिनà¥?दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Ã?slenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kiswahili Kurdî / كوردی Latina LatvieÅ¡u Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lojban Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ ‪Norsk nynorsk‬ Occitan O'zbek Polski Português Română РуÑ?Ñ?кий Sicilianu Simple English SlovenÄ?ina SlovenÅ¡Ä?ina СрпÑ?ки / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / СрпÑ?кохрватÑ?ки Suomi Svenska தமிழà¯? ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 12 August 2008, at 20:58
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