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20-September-2008 09:29:08 - Tibet This article is about historical/cultural Tibet. For the administrative region of the People's Republic of China, see Tibet Autonomous Region. For other uses, see Tibet disambiguation. Cultural/historical Tibet highlighted depicted with various competing territorial claims. Tibet Autonomous Region within the People's Republic of China Historic Tibet as claimed by Tibetan exile groups Tibetan areas as designated by the People's Republic of China Chinese-controlled areas claimed by India as part of Aksai Chin Indian-controlled areas claimed by China as part of Tibet Other areas historically within Tibetan cultural sphere Tibet Tibetan: བོད་; Wylie: bod ; IPA: pʰø̀ʔ; Chinese 西è—? is a plateau region in Central Asia and the home to the indigenous Tibetan people. With an average elevation of 4,900 metres 16,000 ft, it is the highest region on Earth and is commonly referred to as the Roof of the World. Tibet was once an independent kingdom1 but today is part of the People's Republic of China PRC with a small part, depending on definitionsclarify, controlled by India. The Republic of China commonly known as Taiwan also lays a claim to Tibet as part of its exclusive mandate which includes a claim to all the territories currently governed by the PRC. Currently, the PRC government and the Government of Tibet in Exile still disagree over when Tibet became a part of China, and whether the incorporation into China of Tibet is legitimate according to international law.citation needed Since what constitutes Tibet is a matter of much debate see map, right neither its size nor population are simple matters of fact, due to various entities claiming differing parts of the area as a Tibetan region. A unified Tibet first came into being under Songtsän Gampo in the seventh century. From the early 1600s until the 1959 uprising, the Dalai Lamas Tibetan Buddhist spiritual leaders were, at least nominally,2 heads of a centralised Tibetan administration, with political power to administer religious and administrative authority2 over large parts of Tibet from the traditional capital Lhasa. They are believed to be the emanations of AvalokiteÅ›vara Tibetan:spyan ras gzigs, or 'Chenrezig', the bodhisattva of compassion.3 Contents 1 Definitions of Tibet 2 Name 2.1 In English 2.2 In Tibetan 2.3 In Chinese 3 Language 4 History 4.1 Tibet and the Mongols 4.2 Events leading to Qing control 4.3 Tibet under Qing 4.4 Independence proclaimed 4.5 Tibet under The People's Republic of China 5 Geography 5.1 Cities, towns and villages 6 Economy 7 Demographics 7.1 View of the Tibetan exile community 7.2 View of the People's Republic of China 8 Human rights 9 Culture 9.1 Religion 9.1.1 Tibetan Buddhism 9.1.2 Islam 9.1.3 Buddhist monasteries in Tibet 9.2 Tibetan art 9.3 Architecture 9.4 Music 9.5 Festivals 9.6 Other 10 Cuisine 11 Tibet in popular culture 12 Gallery 13 References 14 Further reading 15 See also: 16 External links 16.1 Against PRC rule and policies in Tibet 16.2 PRC sites on PRC rule and policies in Tibet 16.3 Apolitical Definitions of Tibet Flag of Tibet used intermittently between 1912 and 1950. This version was introduced by the 13th Dalai Lama in 1912. The flag is outlawed in the People's Republic of China. Flag of Tibet used intermittently between 1912 and 1950. This version was introduced by the 13th Dalai Lama in 1912. The flag is outlawed in the People's Republic of China. When the PRC government and some Tibetologists4 refer to Tibet, it means the areas covering Ãœ-Tsang and Western Kham, which became present-day the Tibet Autonomous Region, a provincial-level entity of the People's Republic. This definition, however, excludes the former domains of the Dalai Lamas in Amdo and eastern Kham which are part of Qinghai, Gansu, Yunnan, and Sichuan. When the Government of Tibet in Exile and the Tibetan refugee community abroad refer to Tibet, they mean the areas consisting of the traditional provinces of Amdo, Kham, and Ãœ-Tsang. The difference in definition is a major source of dispute. The distribution of Amdo and eastern Kham into surrounding provinces was initiated by the Yongzheng Emperor during the 18th century and has been continuously maintained by successive Chinese governments.5 Western scholars such as sinologist A. Tom Grunfeld and anthropologist Melvyn Goldstein exclude Amdo and Kham from political Tibet: When the Dalai Lama speaks of Tibet, he speaks for an area more than three times the size of the TAR in which Tibetans live Kham and Amdo. The historical reality is that the Dalai Lamas have not ruled these outer areas since the mid-eighteenth century6 Dalai Lama claimed all of Kham and Amdo in the Simla Convention of 1913-14 - most of these areas in fact were not a part of its polity for the two centuries preceding the rise to power of the Communists in China in 1949....The term 'Tibet' refers to the political state ruled by the Dalai Lamas; it does not refer to the ethnic border areas such as Amdo and Kham which were not part of that state in modern times, let alone to Ladakh or Northern Nepal. Until recently, this convention was, as far as I can discern, universally accepted in the scholarly literature4 A modern nation-state usually has clearly defined borders at which one government's authority ceases and that of another begins. In centuries past, the Tibetan and Chinese governments had strong centers from which their power radiated, and weakened with distance from the capital. Inhabitants of border regions often considered themselves independent of both. Actual control exercised over these areas shifted in favor of one government or the other over the course of time. This history is conducive to ambiguity as to what areas belonged to Tibet, or to China, or to neither, at various times.7 In spite of the changing nature of the recognised borders between the two countries over the centuries, and arguments about their positions something common to many modern states as well, there were serious attempts from very early times to delineate the borders clearly to avoid conflict. One of the earliest such attempts was promulgated in the Sino-Tibetan treaty which was agreed on in 821/822 under the Tibetan emperor Ralpacan. It established peace for more than two decades.8 A bilingual account of this treaty is inscribed on a stone pillar which stands outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa. Here is the main core of this remarkable agreement: .... The great king of Tibet, the supernaturally wise divinity, the btsan-po and the great king of China, the Chinese ruler Hwang Te, Nephew and Uncle, having consulted about the alliance of their dominions have made a great treaty and ratified the agreement. In order that it may never be changed, all gods and men have been made aware of it and taken as witnesses; and so that it may be celebrated in every age and in every generation the terms of agreement have been inscribed on a stone pillar. The supernaturally wise divinity, the btsan-po, Khri Gtsug-lde-brtsan himself and the Chinese ruler, B'un B'u He'u Tig Hwang Te, their majesties the Nephew and Uncle, through the great profundity of their minds know whatsoever is good and ill for present and future alike. With great compassion, making no distinction between outer and inner in sheltering all with kindness, they have agreed in their counsel on a great purpose of lasting good-the single thought of causing happiness for the whole population-and have renewed the respectful courtesies of their old friendship. Having consulted to consolidate still further the measure of neighbourly contentment they have made a great treaty. Both Tibet and China shall keep the country and frontiers of which they are now in possession. The whole region to the east of that being the country of Great China and the whole region to the west being assuredly the country of Great Tibet, from either side of that frontier there should be no warfare, no hostile invasions, and no seizure of territory. If there be any suspicious person, he shall be arrested and an investigation made and, having been suitably provided for, he shall be sent back. Now that the dominions are allied and a great treaty of peace has been made in this way, since it is necessary also to continue the communications between Nephew and Uncle, envoys setting out from either side shall follow the old established route. According to former custom their horses shall be changed at Tsang Kun Yog which is between Tibet and China. Beyond Stse Zhung Cheg, where Chinese territory is met, the Chinese shall provide all facilities, beyond Tseng Shu Hywan, where Tibetan territory is met, the Tibetans shall provide all facilities. According to the close and friendly relationship between Nephew and Uncle the customary courtesy and respect shall be observed. Between the two countries no smoke or dust shall appear. Not even a word of sudden alarm or of enmity shall be spoken and from those who guard the frontier upwards all shall live at ease without suspicion or fear both on their land and in their beds. Dwelling in peace they shall win the blessing of happiness for ten thousand generations. The sound of praise shall extend to every place reached by the sun and moon. And in order that this agreement establishing a great era when Tibetans shall be happy in Tibet and Chinese shall be happy in China shall never be changed, the Three Jewels, the body of saints, the sun and moon, planets and stars have been invoked as witnesses; its purport has been expounded in solemn words; the oath has been sworn with the sacrifice of animals; and the agreement has been solemnized. If the parties do not act in accordance with this agreement or if it is violated, whether it be Tibet or China that is first guilty of an offence against it, whatever stratagem or deceit is used in retaliation shall not be considered a breach of the agreement. Thus the rulers and ministers of both Tibet and China declared, and swore the oath; and the text having been written in detail it was sealed with the seals of both great kings. It was inscribed with the signatures of those ministers who took part in the agreement and the text of the agreement was deposited in the archives of each party....9 In more recent times the border between China and Tibet was recognised to be near the town of Batang, which marked the furthest point of Tibetan rule on the route to Chengdu: The temporal power of the Supreme Lama ends at Bathang. The frontiers of Tibet, properly so called, were fixed in 1726, on the termination of a great war between the Tibetans and the Chinese. Two days before you arrive at Bathang, you pass, on the top of a mountain, a stone monument, showing what was arranged at that time between the government of Lha-Ssa and that of Peking, on the subject of boundaries. At present, the countries situate east of Bathang are independent of Lha-Ssa in temporal matters. They are governed by a sort of feudal princes, originally appointed by the Chinese Emperor, and still acknowledging his paramount authority. These petty sovereigns are bound to go every third year to Peking, to offer their tribute to the Emperor.10 Spencer Chapman gives a similar, but more detailed, account of this border agreement: In 1727, as a result of the Chinese having entered Lhasa, the boundary between China and Tibet was laid down as between the head-waters of the Mekong and Yangtse rivers, and marked by a pillar, a little to the south-west of Batang. Land to the west of this pillar was administered from Lhasa, while the Tibetan chiefs of the tribes to the east came more directly under China. This historical Sino-Tibetan boundary was used until 1910. The states Der-ge, Nyarong, Batang, Litang, and the five Hor States-to name the more important districts-are known collectively in Lhasa as Kham, an indefinite term suitable to the Tibetan Government, who are disconcertingly vague over such details as treaties and boundaries.11 Mr. A. Hosie, the British Consul at Chengdu, made a quick trip from Batang to the Tibetan border escorted by Chinese authorities, in September 1904, on the promise that he would not even put a foot over the border into Tibet. He describes the border marker as being a 3½ day journey about 50 miles or 80 km to the south and slightly west of Batang. It was a well-worn, four-sided pillar of sandstone, about 3 feet in height, each side measuring some 18 inches. There was no inscription on the stone, and when unthinkingly I made a movement to look for writing on the Tibetan side, the Chinese officials at once stepped in front of me and barred the road to Tibet. Looking into Tibet the eye met a sea of grass-covered treeless hills. And from the valley at the foot of the Ningching Shan which separate the valleys of the upper Mekong from that of the Jinsha or upper Yangtse rose smoke from the camp fires of 400 Tibetan troops charged with the protection of the frontier. There was no time to make any prolonged inspection, for the Chinese authorities were anxious for me to leave as soon as possible.12 Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European languages, is derived from the Arabic word Tubbat.13 This word is derived via Persian from the Turkic word Töbäd plural of Töbän, meaning the heights.1415 In Medieval Chinese, å??蕃 pronounced tufan, is derived from the same Turkic word.14 å??蕃 was pronounced /t'o-bwÇ?n/ in Medieval times. The exact derivation of the name is, however, still unclear. Some scholars believe that the named derived from that of a people who lived in the region of northeastern Tibet and were referred to as 'Tübüt'. This was the form adapted by the Muslim writers who rendered it Tübbett, Tibbat, etc., from as early as the 9th century, and it then entered European languages from the reports of the medieval European accounts of Piano-Carpini, Rubruck, Marco Polo and the Capuchin monk Francesco della Penna.16 PRC scholars favor the theory that Tibet is derived from tÇ”bÅ?.1317 In Tibetan Tibetans call their homeland Bod བོད་, pronounced pʰøʔ in Lhasa dialect. Beckwith, C. U. of Indiana Diss. 1977. The name Tibetans give their country, Bod now pronounced Pö in the Central dialect, as we have seen, was closely rendered and preserved by their Indian neighbours to the south, as Bhoá¹a, Bhauá¹a or Bauá¹a. It has even been suggested that this name is to be found in Ptolemy and the Periplus Maris Erythraei, a first-century Greek narrative, where the river Bautisos and a people called the Bautai are mentioned in connexion with a region of Central Asia. But we have no knowledge of the existence of Tibetans at that time.18 In Chinese Tibetan plateau Tibetan plateau The present Chinese name for Tibet, 西è—? XÄ«zà ng, is a phonetic transliteration derived from the region called Tsang western Ãœ-Tsang. The Chinese name originated during the Qing Dynasty of China, ca. 1700. It can be broken down into xÄ« 西 literally west, and zà ng è—? from Ãœ-Tsang, but also literally Buddhist scripture, or storage or possibly treasure19. The pre-1700s historic Chinese term for Tibet was å??蕃. In modern Standard Mandarin, the first character is pronounced tÇ”. The second character is normally pronounced fÄ?n; in the context of references to Tibet, most authorities say that it should be pronounced bÅ?, while some authorities state that it should be pronounced as fÄ?n.20 A reconstructed Medieval Chinese pronunciation would be /t'obwÇ?n/, which comes from the Turkic word for heights which is also the origin of the English term Tibet.1415 The Chinese, well informed on the Tibetans as they were from the seventh century onwards, rendered Bod as Fan at that time pronounced something like B'iÌwan. Was this because the Tibetans sometimes said 'Bon' instead of 'Bod', or because 'fan' in Chinese was a common term for 'barbarians'? We do not know. But before long, on the testimony of a Tibetan ambassador, the Chinese started using the form T'u-fan, by assimilation with the name of the T'u-fa, a Turco-Mongol race, who must originally have been called something like Tuppat.21 When expressing themselves in Chinese, many exiled Tibetans, including the Dalai Lama's government in Dharamsala, now use the term å??å?š TÇ”bó. Pastoral nomads camping near Namtso in 2005 Pastoral nomads camping near Namtso in 2005 The PRC government equates Tibet with the Tibet Autonomous Region TAR. As such, the name XÄ«zà ng is equated with the TAR. Some English-speakers reserve XÄ«zà ng, the Chinese word transliterated into English, for the TAR, to keep the concept distinct from that of historic Tibet.citation neededThe character è—? zà ng has been used in transcriptions referring to Tsang as early as the Yuan Dynasty, if not earlier, though the modern term Xizang western Tsang was devised in the 18th century. The Chinese character è—? Zà ng has also been generalized to refer to all of Tibet, including other concepts related to Tibet such as the Tibetan language è—?æ–‡, Zà ngwén and the Tibetan people è—?æ—?, Zà ngzú. Language Main article: Tibetan language A Tibetan woman in Lhasa A Tibetan woman in Lhasa The Tibetan language is generally classified as a Tibeto-Burman language of the Sino-Tibetan language family although the boundaries between 'Tibetan' and certain other Himalayan languages can be unclear. According to Matthew Kapstein: From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. Grouping these two together with other apparently related languages spoken in the Himalayan lands, as well as in the highlands of Southeast Asia and the Sino-Tibetan frontier regions, linguists have generally concluded that there exists a Tibeto-Burman family of languages. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is itself part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan, and that through it Tibetan and Burmese are distant cousins of Chinese.22 The language is spoken in numerous regional dialects which, although sometimes mutually intelligible, generally cannot be understood by the speakers of the different oral forms of Tibetan. It is employed throughout the Tibetan plateau and Bhutan and is also spoken in parts of Nepal and northern India, such as Sikkim. In general, the dialects of central Tibet including Lhasa, Kham, Amdo and some smaller nearby areas are considered Tibetan dialects. Other forms, particularly Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Sherpa, and Ladakhi, are considered by their speakers, largely for political reasons, to be separate languages.citation needed However, if the latter group of Tibetan-type languages are included in the calculation then 'greater Tibetan' is spoken by approximately 6 million people across the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan is also spoken by approximately 150,000 exile speakers who have fled from modern-day Tibet to India and other countries. Although spoken Tibetan varies according to the region, the written language, based on Classical Tibetan, is consistent throughout. This is probably due to the long-standing influence of the Tibetan empire,citation needed whose rule embraced and extended at times far beyond the present Tibetan linguistic area, which runs from northern Pakistan in the west to Yunnan and Sichuan in the east, and from north of the Kokonor lake Qinghai south as far as Bhutan. The Tibetan language has its own script that it shares with Ladakhi and Dzongkha, which is derived from the ancient Indian Brahmi script.23 History Main article: History of Tibet Further information: History of European exploration in Tibet, Foreign relations of Tibet, and Tibet during the Ming Dynasty King Songtsen Gampo King Songtsen Gampo The general history of Tibet begins with the rule of Songtsän Gampo 604-50 CE who united parts of the Yarlung River Valley and ruled Tibet as a kingdom. He also brought in many reforms and Tibetan power spread rapidly creating a large and powerful empire. In 640 he married Princess Wencheng, the niece of the powerful Chinese emperor Emperor Taizong of Tang China. Under the next few kings who followed Songsten Gampo, Buddhism became established as the state religion and Tibetan power increased even further over large areas of Central Asia while major inroads were made into Chinese territory, even reaching the Chinese capital Chang'an modern Xian in late 763.24 However, Tibetan troops occupied Chang'an for only fifteen days. Nanzhao in Yunnan and neighbouring regions remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.25 The Tibetans were allied with the Arabs and eastern Turks. In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general Gao Xianzhi, who tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia and Kashmir. By 750 the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to the Chinese. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the Arabs and Qarluqs at the Battle of Talas river 751, Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence resumed. In 821/822 CE Tibet and China signed a remarkable peace treaty. A bilingual account of this treaty including details of the borders between the two countries are inscribed on a stone pillar which stands outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa.26 Tibet continued as a Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century. Tibet and the Mongols At the end of the 1230s, the Mongols turned their attention to Tibet. At that time, Mongol armies had already conquered Northern China, much of Central Asia, and as far as Russia and modern Ukraine. The Tibetan nobility, however, was fragmented and mainly occupied with internal strife. Göden, a brother of Güyük, entered the country in 1240. A second invasion led to the submission almost all Tibetan states. In 1244, Göden summoned the Sakya Pandita to his court, and in 1247 appointed Sakya the Mongolian viceroy for Central Tibet, though the eastern provinces of Kham and Amdo remained under direct Mongol rule.27 When Kublai Khan founded the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, Tibet became a part of the Yuan Dynasty. Tibet in 820 in relation to the other powers Tibet in 820 in relation to the other powers Kublai Khan Kublai Khan Between 1346 and 1354, towards the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the House of Pagmodru toppled the Sakya. The following 80 years were a period of relative stability. They also saw the birth of the Gelugpa school also known as Yellow Hats by the disciples of Tsongkhapa Lobsang Dragpa, and the founding of the important Ganden, Drepung, and Sera monasteries near Lhasa. After the 1430s, the country entered another period of internal power struggles.28 In 1578, Altan Khan of the Tümed Mongols invited Sonam Gyatso, a high lama of the Gelugpa school. They met near Khökh Nuur, where Altan Khan first referred to Sönam Gyatso as the Dalai Lama; Dalai being the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan name Gyatso, or Ocean.29 Events leading to Qing control In the 1630s, Tibet became entangled in the power struggles between the rising Manchu and various Mongol and Oirad factions. Ligden Khan of the Mongolian Chakhar tribe, retreating from the Manchu forces, set out to destroy the Yellow Hat Gelug school in Tibet but died on the way near Kokonor, in 1634. 30 His vassal Tsogt Taij continued the fight but was defeated and killed by Güshi Khan of the Khoshud in 1637, who, in turn, became the overlord over Tibet, and acted as a Protector of the Yellow Church31. Güshi helped the Fifth Dalai Lama to establish himself as the highest spiritual and political authority in Tibet and destroyed any potential rivals. In 1705, Lobzang Khan of the Khoshud used the 6th Dalai Lama's refusal of the role of a monk although the encumbant did not reject his political role as Dalai Lama as an excuse to take control of Tibet. The regent was murdered, and the Dalai Lama sent to Beijing. He died on the way, also near Kokonor, ostensibly from illness. Lobzang Khan appointed a new Dalai Lama, who, however, was not accepted by the Gelugpa school. A rival reincarnation was found in the region of Kokonor. The Dzungars invaded Tibet in 1717, deposed and killed a pretender to the position of Dalai Lama who had been promoted by Lhabzang, which met with widespread approval. However, the Dzungars soon began to loot the holy places of Lhasa which brought a swift response from Emperor Kangxi in 1718, but his military expion was annihilated by the Dzungars not far from Lhasa.3233 Emperor Kangxi finally expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kelzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the Seventh Dalai Lama in 1721, though they did not make Tibet a province, allowed it to maintain its own officials and legal and administrative systems, and levied no taxes.3234 However, the Manchu Qing put Amdo under their control in 1724, and incorporated eastern Kham into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728.35 The Qing government sent a resident commissioner, namely Amban, to Lhasa. In 1751, Emperor Qianlong installed the Dalai Lama as both the spiritual leader and political leader of Tibet leading the government, namely Kashag.36 Tibet under Qing While the ancient relations between Tibet and China are complicated, there can be no question regarding the subordination of Tibet to Manchu-ruled China following first decades of the 18th century.37 In 1788, Gurkha forces sent by Bahadur Shah, the Regent of Nepal, invaded Tibet, occupying a number of frontier districts. The young Panchen Lama fled to Lhasa and Qing Emperor Qianlong sent troops to Lhasa, upon which the Nepalese withdrew agreeing to pay a large annual sum. In 1791 the Nepalese Gurkhas invaded Tibet a second time, seizing Shigatse and destroyed, plundered, and desecrated the great Tashilhunpo Monastery. The Panchen Lama was forced to flee to Lhasa once again. Emperor Qianlong then sent an army of 17,000 men to Tibet. In 1793, with the assistance of Tibetan troops, they managed to drive the Nepalese troops to within about 30 km of Kathmandu.38 Francis Younghusband Francis Younghusband The first Europeans to arrive in Tibet were Portuguese missionaries in 1624 and were welcomed by the Tibetans who allowed them to build a church. The 18th century brought more Jesuits and Capuchins from Europe who gradually met opposition from Tibetan lamas who finally expelled them from Tibet in 1745. However, at the time not all Europeans were banned from the country - in 1774 a Scottish nobleman, George Bogle, came to Shigatse to investigate trade for the British East India Company, introducing the first potatoes into Tibet.39 However, by the 19th century the situation of foreigners in Tibet grew more tenuous. The British Empire was encroaching from northern India into the Himalayas and Afghanistan and the Russian Empire of the tsars was expanding south into Central Asia and each power became suspicious of intent in Tibet. Sándor KÅ‘rösi Csoma, the Hungarian scientist spent 20 years in British India 4 years in Ladakh trying to visit Tibet. He created the first Tibetan-English dictionary. By the 1850s Tibet had banned all foreigners from Tibet and shut its borders to all outsiders. In 1865 Great Britain began secretly mapping Tibet. Trained Indian surveyor-spies disguised as pilgrims or traders counted their strides on their travels across Tibet and took readings at night. Then, in 1904 a British mission under the command of Colonel Francis Younghusband, accompanied by a large military escort, invaded Tibet and reached Lhasa. The principal pretext for the British invasion was a fear, which proved to be unfounded, that Russia was extending its power into Tibet and possibly even giving military aid to the local Tibetan government. But on his way to Lhasa, Younghusband slaughtered many Tibetan troops in Gyangzê who tried to stop the British advance. Sera Monastery, Lhasa, Tibet 2006 Sera Monastery, Lhasa, Tibet 2006 When the mission reached Lhasa, the Dalai Lama had already fled to Urga in Mongolia, Younghusband found the option of returning to India empty-handed untenable, he proceeded to draft a treaty unilaterally, and have it signed in the Potala by the regent, Ganden Tri Rinpoche, and any other local officials he could gather together as an ad hoc government. The treaty made provisions for the frontier between Sikkim and Tibet to be respected, for free trade between British and Tibetan subjects, and for an indemnity to be paid from the Qing court to the British Government for its expenses in dispatching armed troops to Lhasa. The provisions of this 1904 treaty were confirmed in a 1906 treaty Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China. The British, for a fee from the Qing court, also agreed not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet.4041 The position of British Trade Agent at Gyangzê was occupied from 1904 until 1944. It was not until 1937, with the creation of the position of Head of British Mission Lhasa, that a British officer had a permanent posting in Lhasa itself.42 In 1910, the Qing government sent a military expion of its own to establish direct Chinese rule and deposed the Dalai Lama in an imperial edict. The Dalai Lama once again fled, this time to British India, in February 1910. The Dalai Lama returned to Tibet from India in July 1912, and by the end of the year the Chinese troops in Tibet had returned, via India, to China Proper. Independence proclaimed Upon his return to Tibet in 1913, the Dalai Lama issued a proclamation that stated that relationship between the Chinese emperor and Tibet had been that of patron and priest and had not been based on the subordination of one to the other.43 We are a small, religious, and independent nation, the proclamation stated.43 In early 1913, Agvan Dorzhiev and two other Tibetan representatives44 signed a treaty between Tibet and Mongolia in Urga, proclaiming mutual recognition and their independence from China. The 13th Dalai Lama later told a British diplomat that he did not authorized Agvan Dorzhiev to conclude any treaties on behalf of Tibet.4546 In 1914, representatives of Tibet, Britain, and China negotiated a treaty concerning Tibet's status called the Simla Convention. The convention included a map delineating a boundary between Tibet and India later called the McMahon Line. It affirmed Chinese suzerainty and stated that Tibet was part of Chinese territory.47 When the Chinese government refused to ratify, Tibet and Britain concluded the treaty as a bilateral agreement and attached a note denying China any priveleges under it.48 The subsequent outbreak of World War I and the division of China into military cliques ruled by warlords caused the Western powers and the infighting factions within China to lose interest in Tibet, and the 13th Dalai Lama ruled undisturbed until his death in 1933. At that time, the government of Tibet controlled all of Ãœ-Tsang Dbus-gtsang and western Kham Khams, somewhat larger than the Tibet Autonomous Region today. Eastern Kham, separated by the Yangtze River, was under the control of Chinese warlord Liu Wenhui. In 1935 the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso was born in Amdo in eastern Tibet and was recognized as the latest reincarnation. He was taken to Lhasa in 1937 where he was later given an official ceremony in 1939. In 1944, during World War II, two Austrian mountaineers, Heinrich Harrer and Peter Aufschnaiter came to Lhasa, where Harrer became a tutor and friend to the young Dalai Lama giving him a sound knowledge of western culture and modern society, until he was forced to leave in 1959. Supporters of the PRC have characterised the socio-economy of Tibet prior to Communism as 'feudal serfdom'. However, supporters of an independent Tibet objected to this assessment. For a discussion of the debate see Serfdom in Tibet controversy. For a description of the traditional social structure see Social classes of Tibet. Tibet under The People's Republic of China The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. May 2008 Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. The Chairman of the Cabinet of the CTA, Samdhong Rinpoche The Chairman of the Cabinet of the CTA, Samdhong Rinpoche With the invasion of Tibet in 1950 and the subsequent Seventeen Point Agreement, the PRC asserted control over Tibet. A rebellion against the Chinese occupation was led by noblemen and monasteries and broke out in Amdo and eastern Kham in June 1956. The insurrection, supported by the American CIA, eventually spread to Lhasa. It was crushed by 1959. During this campaign, tens of thousands of Tibetans were killed and the 14th Dalai Lama and other government principals fled to exile in India.49 Chinese sources claim rapid progress for prosperous, free, and happy Tibetans participating in democratic reforms, although nothing like a free and open election has ever occurred in Tibet under Chinese rule. Tibetans, on the other hand, write of Chinese genocide in Tibet, comparing the Chinese to the Nazis.50 Independent scholar Warren Smith, whose work became focused on Tibetan history and politics after spending five months in Tibet in 1982, portrays the Chinese as chauvinists who believe they are superior to the Tibetans, and claims that the Chinese use torture, coercion and starvation to control the Tibetans.51 The Central Tibetan Administration states that the number that have died in the Great Leap Forward, of violence, or other indirect causes since 1950 is approximately 1.2 million,52 which the Chinese Communist Party denies. The Chinese Communist PartyCCP's official toll of deaths recorded for the whole of China for the years of the Great Leap Forward is 14 millioncitation needed, but scholars have estimated the number of the famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million53. According to Patrick French, the estimate of 1.2 million in Tibet is not reliable because Tibetans were not able to process the data well enough to produce a credible total. There were, however, many casualties, with a figure of 400,000 extrapolated from a calculation Warren W. Smith made from census reports of Tibet which show 200,000 missing from Tibet.5455 The following Cultural Revolution and the damage it wrought upon Tibet and, indeed, the entire PRC is generally condemned as a nationwide catastrophe. In the PRC government's view, the main instigators were the Gang of Four, who have since been brought to justice. Large numbers of Tibetans died violent deaths due to the Cultural Revolution, and the number of intact monasteries in Tibet was reduced from thousands, to less than ten. Tibetan resentment towards the Chinese deepened.56 Tibetans participated in the destruction, but it is not clear how many of them actually embraced Chinese ideology, and how many participated out of fear of becoming targets themselves.57 Projects that the PRC government claims to have benefited Tibet as part of the China Western Development economic plan, such as the Qinghai-Tibet Railway, have roused fears of facilitating military mobilisation and Han migration.58 There is still ethnic imbalance in appointments and promotions to the civil and judicial services in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, with disproportionately few ethnic Tibetans appointed to these posts.59 The PRC government claims that its rule over Tibet is an unalloyed improvement, and that the China Western Development plan is a massive, benevolent, and patriotic undertaking by the wealthier eastern coast to help the western parts of China, including Tibet, catch up in prosperity and living standards. But foreign governments continue to make occasional protests about aspects of CCP rule in Tibet because of frequent reports of human rights violation in Tibet by groups such as Human Rights Watch. The government of the PRC maintains that the Tibetan Government did almost nothing to improve the Tibetans' material and political standard of life during its rule from 1913-59, and that they opposed any reforms proposed by the Chinese government. According to the Chinese government, this is the reason for the tension that grew between some central government officials and the local Tibetan government in 1959.60 The government of the PRC also rejects claims that the lives of Tibetans have deteriorated, and states that the lives of Tibetans have been improved immensely compared to self rule before 1950.61 Belying these claims, some 3,000 Tibetans brave hardship and danger to flee into exile every year.62 The Tibetan Parliament in Exile in Dharamsala, India. The Tibetan Parliament in Exile in Dharamsala, India. These claims are, however, disputed by many Tibetans. In 1989, the Panchen Lama,finally allowed to return to Shigatse, addressed a crowd of 30,000 and described what he saw as the suffering of Tibet and the harm being done to his country in the name of socialist reform under the rule of the PRC in terms reminiscent of the petition he had presented to Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1962.63 Gedhun Choekyi Nyima 11th Panchen Lama claimed by exiled Tibetan Gedhun Choekyi Nyima 11th Panchen Lama claimed by exiled Tibetan In 1995 the Dalai Lama named 6 year old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th Panchen Lama without Chinese approval, while the PRC named another child, Gyancain Norbu in conflict. Gyancain Norbu was raised in Beijing and has appeared occasionally on state media. The PRC-selected Panchen Lama is rejected by exiled Tibetans and anti-China groups who commonly refer to him as the Panchen Zuma literally fake Panchen Lama. Gedhun Choekyi Nyima and his family have gone missing - believed by some to be imprisoned by China - and under a hidden identity for protection and privacy according to the PRC.64 The Dalai Lama has stated his willingness to negotiate with the PRC government for genuine autonomy, but according to the government in exile and Tibetan independence groups, most Tibetans still call for full Tibetan independence. The Dalai Lama sees the millions of government-imported Han immigrantscitation needed and preferential socioeconomic policies, as presenting an urgent threat to the Tibetan nation and culture. Tibetan exile groups say that despite recent attempts to restore the appearance of original Tibetan culture to attract tourism, the traditional Tibetan way of life is now irrevocably changed. Tashi Wangdi, the Representative of the Dalai Lama, stated in an interview that China's Western China Development program is providing facilities for the resettlement of Han Chinese in Tibet.65 In 2001 representatives of Tibet succeeded in gaining accration at a United Nations-sponsored meeting of non-governmental organizations. On August 29 Jampal Chosang, the head of the Tibetan coalition, stated that China had introduced a new form of apartheid in Tibet because Tibetan culture, religion, and national identity are considered a threat to China.66 In 2005, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao's offered to hold talks with the 14th Dalai Lama on the Tibet issue, provided he dropped the demand for independence. The Dalai Lama said in an interview with the South China Morning Post We are willing to be part of the People's Republic of China, to have it govern and guarantee to preserve our Tibetan culture, spirituality and our environment. This statement was seen as a renewed diplomatic initiative by the Tibetan government-in-exile. He had already said he would accept Chinese sovereignty over Tibet but insisted on real autonomy over its religious and cultural life. The Tibetan government-in-exile called on the Chinese government to respond.67 The move was unpopular with many Tibetans. In January 2007 the Dalai Lama, in an interview on a private television channel, said, what we demand from the Chinese authority is more autonomy for Tibetans to protect their culture. He added that he had told the Tibetan people not to think in terms of history and to accept Tibet as a part of China.68 Talks between representatives of the Dalai Lama and the Chinese government began again in May 2008 and again in July, but with little results. The two sides agreed to meet again in October.69 Geography Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Geography of Tibet Tibet is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the world's highest region. Tibet is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the world's highest region. Snow mountains in Tibet Snow mountains in Tibet Main article: Geography of Tibet Geographically, UNESCO and Encyclopædia Britannica70 consider Tibet to be part of Central Asia, while some academic organizations consider it part of South Asia.7172 Tibet is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the world's highest region. The world's highest mountain, Mount Everest, is on Nepal's border with Tibet. The average altitude is about 3,000 m in the south and 4,500 m in the north. Yamdrok tso lake Yamdrok tso lake Several major rivers have their source in the Tibetan Plateau mostly in present-day Qinghai Province. These includeYangtze, Yellow River, Indus River, Mekong, Brahmaputra River, Ganges, Salween and the Yarlung Tsangpo River73. The Indus, Brahmaputra rivers originate from a lake Tib: Tso Mapham in Western Tibet, near Mount Kailash. The mountain is a holy pilgrimage for both Hindus and Tibetans. The Hindus consider the mountain to be the abode of Lord Shiva. The Tibetan name for Mt Kailash is Khang Rinpoche. Tibet has numerous high-altitude lakes referred to in Tibetan as tso or co. These include Lake Manasarovar, Namtso, Pangong Tso, Yamdrok Lake, Siling Co, Lhamo La-tso, Lumajangdong Co, Lake Puma Yumco, Lake Paiku, Lake Rakshastal, Dagze Co and Dong Co Yarlung Tsangpo River Yarlung Tsangpo River The atmosphere is severely dry nine months of the year, and average annual snowfall is only 18 inches, due to the rain shadow effect whereby mountain ranges prevent moisture from the ocean from reaching the plateaus. Western passes receive small amounts of fresh snow each year but remain traversable all year round. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation beyond the size of low bushes, and where wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The Indian monsoon exerts some influence on eastern Tibet. Northern Tibet is subject to high temperatures in the summer and intense cold in the winter. Historic Tibet consists of several regions. These include Amdo A mdo in the northeast, incorporated by China into the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Sichuan.citation needed, KhamKhams in the east, divided between Sichuan, northern Yunnan and Qinghai.citation needed, Western Kham, part of the Tibetan Autonomous Region and Ãœ-Tsang dBus gTsang Ãœ in the center, Tsang in the center-west, and Ngari mNga' ris in the far west, part of the Tibetan Autonomous Region. Tibetan cultural influences extend to the neighboring states of Bhutan, Nepal, adjacent regions of India such as Sikkim and Ladakh, and adjacent provinces of China where Tibetan Buddhism is the predominant religion. On the border with India, the region popularly known among Chinese as South Tibetcitation needed is claimed by China and administered by India as the state of Arunachal Pradesh. Cities, towns and villages Further information: List of towns and villages in the Tibet Autonomous Region Shigatse Shigatse Looking across the square at Jokhang temple, Lhasa Looking across the square at Jokhang temple, Lhasa There are over 800 settlements in Tibet, Lhasa is Tibet's traditional capital and the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region. Lhasa contains the world heritage site the Potala Palace and Norbulingka, the residences of the Dalai Lama. Lhasa contains a number of significant temples and monasteries which are deeply engrained in its history including Jokhang and Ramoche Temple. Shigatse is the country's second largest city, west of Lhasa. Gyantse, Chamdo are also amongst the largest. Other cities in Historic Tibet include, Nagchu, Nyingchi, Nedong, Barkam, Sakya, Gartse, Pelbar, Lhatse, and Tingri; in Sichuan, Kangding Dartsedo; in Qinghai, Jyekundo or Yushu, Machen, and Golmud. There is also a large Tibetan settlement in South India near Kushalanagara. India created this settlement for Tibetan refugees which had fled to India. Economy Main article: Economy of Tibet The Tibetan yak is an integral part of Tibetan life. The Tibetan yak is an integral part of Tibetan life. According to Chinese sources, Tibet's GDP in 2001 was 13.9 billion yuan USD1.8billion.74 The Central government exempts Tibet from all taxation and provides 90% of Tibet's government expenditures.757677unreliable source?78unreliable source? The Tibetan economy is dominated by subsistence agriculture. Due to limited arable land, livestock raising is the primary occupation mainly on the Tibetan Plateau, among them are sheep, cattle, goats, camels, yaks and horses. However, the main crops grown are barley, wheat, buckwheat, rye, potatoes and assorted fruits and vegetables. In recent years, due to the increased interest in Tibetan Buddhism, tourism has become an increasingly important sector, and is actively promoted by the authorities. The Tibetan economy is heavily subsidized by the Central government and government cadres receive the second-highest salaries in China.79 The world's highest railway connecting Tibet with eastern Chinese provinces for the first time by rail. Operational since July 2006. The world's highest railway connecting Tibet with eastern Chinese provinces for the first time by rail. Operational since July 2006. Tourism brings in the most income from the sale of handicrafts. These include Tibetan hats, jewelry silver and gold, wooden items, clothing, quilts, fabrics, Tibetan rugs and carpets. The Qinghai-Tibet Railway which links the region to Qinghai in China proper was opened in 2006.80 The Chinese government claims that the line will promote the development of impoverished Tibet.81 But opponents argue the railway will harm Tibet. For instance, Tibetan opponents contend that it would only draw more Han Chinese residents, the country's dominant ethnic group, who have been migrating steadily to Tibet over the last decade, bringing with them their popular culture. Opponents believe that the large influx of Han Chinese will ultimately extinguish the local culture.82 Other opponents argue that the railway will damage Tibet's fragile ecology and that most of its economic benefits will go to migrant Han Chinese.83 As activists call for a boycott of the railway, the Dalai Lama has urged Tibetans to wait and see what benefits the new line might bring to them. According to the Government-in-exile's spokesmen, the Dalai Lama welcomes the building of the railway, conditioned on the fact that the railroad will bring benefit to the majority of Tibetans.84 In January 2007, the Chinese government issued a report outlining the discovery of a large mineral deposit under the Tibetan Plateau.85 The deposit has an estimated value of $128 billion and may double Chinese reserves of zinc, copper, and lead. The Chinese government sees this as a way to alleviate the nation's dependence on foreign mineral imports for its growing economy. However, critics worry that mining these vast resources will harm Tibet's fragile ecosystem as well take valuable resources away from the Tibetan people.85 Demographics An elderly Tibetan woman An elderly Tibetan woman Ethnolinguistic Groups of Tibetan language, 1967 See entire map, which includes a key Ethnolinguistic Groups of Tibetan language, 1967 See entire map, which includes a key Ethnic Tibetan autonomous entities set up by the People's Republic of China. Opponents to the PRC dispute the actual level of autonomy. Ethnic Tibetan autonomous entities set up by the People's Republic of China. Opponents to the PRC dispute the actual level of autonomy. Traditional Kham houses Traditional Kham houses Historically, the population of Tibet consisted of primarily ethnic Tibetans. Other ethnic groups in Tibet include Menba Monpa, Lhoba, Mongols and Hui Chinese. According to tradition the original ancestors of the Tibetan people, as represented by the six red bands in the Tibetan flag, are: the Se, Mu, Dong, Tong, Dru and Ra. The issue of the proportion of the Han Chinese population in Tibet is a politically sensitive one. The Central Tibetan Administration, an exile group, says that the PRC has actively swamped Tibet with Han Chinese migrants in order to alter Tibet's demographic makeup.2 View of the Tibetan exile community Between the 1960s and 1980s, many prisoners over 1 million, according to Harry Wu were sent to laogai camps in Amdo Qinghai, where they were then employed locally after release. Since the 1980s, increasing economic liberalization and internal mobility has also resulted in the influx of many Han Chinese into Tibet for work or settlement, though the actual number of this floating population remains disputed. The Government of Tibet in Exile claims that, despite official statistics to the contrary, in reality non-ethnic Tibetans including Han Chinese and Hui Muslims outnumber ethnic Tibetans. It claims that this is as a result of an active policy of demographically swamping the Tibetan people and further diminishing any chances of Tibetan political independence.3 The Dalai Lama has recently been reported as saying that the Tibetans had been reduced to a minority in his homeland, by reference to population figures of Lhasa, and accusing China of demographic aggression.86 A young Tibetan girl in a valley in the Kham region of Tibet. A young Tibetan girl in a valley in the Kham region of Tibet. The Government of Tibet in Exile questions all statistics given by the PRC government, since they do not include members of the People's Liberation Army garrisoned in Tibet, or the large floating population of unregistered migrants.4 The Qinghai-Tibet Railway Xining to Lhasa is also a major concern, as it is believed to further facilitate the influx of migrants.5 The Government of Tibet in Exile quotes an issue of People's Daily published in 1959 to claim that the Tibetan population has dropped significantly since 1959. According to the article, figures from the National Bureau of Statistics of the PRC show that the autonomous region of Tibet was populated by 1,273,969 persons. In the Tibetan sectors of Kham, 3,381,064 Tibetans were counted. In Qinghai and other Tibetan sectors that are incorporated in Gansu, 1,675,534 Tibetans were counted. According to the total of these three numbers, the Tibetan population attained 6,330,567 in 1959. 87 In 2000, the number of Tibetans as a whole of these regions was about 5,400,000 according to National Bureau of Statistics88. The Tibetan exile Government's analysis of these statistics originating from National Bureau of Statistics shows that in between 1959 and 2000, the Tibetan population decreased by about one million, a 15% decline. During the same period, the Chinese population doubled, and the world-wide population increased by 3-fold.89 This analysis gives an additional argument concerning the estimation of the number of Tibetan deaths during the period between 1959 and 1979. It also suggests the existence of a demographic deficit of the Tibetan population and the precise time course and causes must be specified. The accuracy of this 1959 Tibetan population estimate quoted by the Government of Tibet in Exile is in conflict with the findings of the 1954 Chinese census report. The census states that the total population of the autonomous region of Tibet was 1,273,969; the total population of Kham was 3,381,064; and the total population of Qinghai was 1,675,534.90 These numbers were taken by the Government of Tibet in Exile as the population of Tibetans in each province. View of the People's Republic of China The PRC government does not view itself as an occupying power and has vehemently denied allegations of demographic swamping. The PRC also does not recognize Greater Tibet as claimed by the government of Tibet in Exile, saying that the idea was engineered by foreign imperialists as a plot to divide China amongst themselves, Mongolia being a striking precedent, gaining independence with Soviet backing and subsequently aligning itself with the Soviet Union and that those areas outside the TAR were not controlled by the Tibetan government before 1959 in the first place, having been administered instead by other surrounding provinces for centuries.91 The PRC gives the number of Tibetans in Tibet Autonomous Region as 2.4 million, as opposed to 190,000 non-Tibetans, and the number of Tibetans in all Tibetan autonomous entities combined slightly smaller than the Greater Tibet claimed by exiled Tibetans as 5.0 million, as opposed to 2.3 million non-Tibetans. In the TAR itself, much of the Han population is to be found in Lhasa. Population control policies like the one-child policy only apply to Han Chinese, not to minorities such as Tibetans 92. Jampa Phuntsok, chairman of the TAR, has also said that the central government has no policy of migration into Tibet due to its harsh high-altitude conditions, that the 6% Han in the TAR is a very fluid group mainly doing business or working, and that there is no immigration problem.93 With regards to the historical population of ethnic Tibetans, the Chinese government claims that according to the First National Census conducted in 1954, there were 2,770,000 ethnic Tibetans in China, including 1,270,000 in the TAR; whereas in the Fourth National Census conducted in 1990, there were 4,590,000 ethnic Tibetans in China, including 2,090,000 in the TAR. These figures are used to advance the claim that the Tibetan population has doubled since 1951. 94 This table95 includes all Tibetan autonomous entities in the PRC, plus Xining PLC and Haidong P. The latter two are included to complete the figures for Qinghai province, and also because they are claimed as parts of Greater Tibet by the Government of Tibet in exile. P = Prefecture; AP = Autonomous prefecture; PLC = Prefecture-level city; AC = Autonomous county. Excludes members of the People's Liberation Army in active service. Major ethnic groups in Greater Tibet by region, 2000 census. Total Tibetans Han Chinese others Tibet Autonomous Region: 2,616,329 2,427,168 92.8% 158,570 6.1% 30,591 1.2% - Lhasa PLC 474,499 387,124 81.6% 80,584 17.0% 6,791 1.4% - Qamdo Prefecture 586,152 563,831 96.2% 19,673 3.4% 2,648 0.5% - Shannan Prefecture 318,106 305,709 96.1% 10,968 3.4% 1,429 0.4% - Xigazê Prefecture 634,962 618,270 97.4% 12,500 2.0% 4,192 0.7% - Nagqu Prefecture 366,710 357,673 97.5% 7,510 2.0% 1,527 0.4% - Ngari Prefecture 77,253 73,111 94.6% 3,543 4.6% 599 0.8% - Nyingchi Prefecture 158,647 121,450 76.6% 23,792 15.0% 13,405 8.4% Qinghai Province: 4,822,963 1,086,592 22.5% 2,606,050 54.0% 1,130,321 23.4% - Xining PLC 1,849,713 96,091 5.2% 1,375,013 74.3% 378,609 20.5% - Haidong Prefecture 1,391,565 128,025 9.2% 783,893 56.3% 479,647 34.5% - Haibei AP 258,922 62,520 24.1% 94,841 36.6% 101,561 39.2% - Huangnan AP 214,642 142,360 66.3% 16,194 7.5% 56,088 26.1% - Hainan AP 375,426 235,663 62.8% 105,337 28.1% 34,426 9.2% - Golog AP 137,940 126,395 91.6% 9,096 6.6% 2,449 1.8% - Gyêgu AP 262,661 255,167 97.1% 5,970 2.3% 1,524 0.6% - Haixi AP 332,094 40,371 12.2% 215,706 65.0% 76,017 22.9% Tibetan areas in Sichuan province - Ngawa AP 847,468 455,238 53.7% 209,270 24.7% 182,960 21.6% - Garzê AP 897,239 703,168 78.4% 163,648 18.2% 30,423 3.4% - Muli AC 124,462 60,679 48.8% 27,199 21.9% 36,584 29.4% Tibetan areas in Yunnan province - Dêqên AP 353,518 117,099 33.1% 57,928 16.4% 178,491 50.5% Tibetan areas in Gansu province - Gannan AP 640,106 329,278 51.4% 267,260 41.8% 43,568 6.8% - Tianzhu AC 221,347 66,125 29.9% 139,190 62.9% 16,032 7.2% Total for Greater Tibet: With Xining and Haidong 10,523,432 5,245,347 49.8% 3,629,115 34.5% 1,648,970 15.7% Without Xining and Haidong 7,282,154 5,021,231 69.0% 1,470,209 20.2% 790,714 10.9% Human rights The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. April 2008 Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page. May 2008 According to the non-government Save Tibet website, the Tibetan people are denied most rights guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, including the rights to self-determination, freedom of speech, assembly, movement, expression, and travel. 96 Elliot Sperling, an Associate Professor of Tibetan Studies at Indiana University, in a statement to the Human Rights Watch, also detailed human rights violation in Tibet.97 The Tibet Justice.org claims that according to UN Development Programme data, Tibet is ranked the lowest among China's 31 provinces,98 and is ranked 153 out of the 160 countries on the Human Development Index. 99 Amnesty International has stated that political prisoners are often beaten and tortured, and sometimes summarily executed. Since the 1988 ratification of the UN Convention Against Torture by China, 69 Tibetans are recorded as having died as a result of torture in Chinese prisons. Human rights groups have confirmed by name over 700 Tibetan political prisoners in Tibet, many of them detained without charge or trial.100 Tibetologist Thomas Laird claims that there is no evidence to support China's claim that Tibet is autonomous,101 as all local legislation is subject to approval of the central government in Beijing. The Tibetan exile government claims that China does not allow independent human rights organisations into Tibet, and foreign delegations invited to Tibet are denied independent access to meet with Tibetans. 102 103 The Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy claims that more than 11,000 monks and nuns have been expelled from Tibet since 1996 for opposing patriotic re-education sessions conducted at monasteries and nunneries under the Strike Hard campaign.104 Thomas Laird also claims that China continues to encourage the transfer of Chinese settlers into Tibet. This threatens the survival of the Tibetan religious, cultural and national identity.105106 The Free Tibet website claims that unemployment in schools, discussion of Tibetan cultural, religious and social issues is discouraged, and Chinese culture is promoted. 107 The Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy claims that unemployment among Tibetans is high. An unequal taxation system further exacerbates the conditions of poverty for Tibetans in rural areas.108 Many basic rights, such as the right to housing, education and health, remain unfulfilled. Culture Main article: Culture of Tibet Part of a series on Tibetan Buddhism History Timeline · Related-topics Schools Nyingma · Kagyu · Sakya · Gelug · Bön Key Concepts Three marks of existence Skandha · Cosmology SaṃsÄ?ra · Rebirth · Bodhisattva ·Dharma · Dependent Origination · Karma Major Figures Gautama Buddha ·Padmasambhava·Je Tsongkhapa · Dalai Lama · Panchen Lama · Lama ·Karmapa Lama · Rinpoche · Geshe · Terton · Tulku Practices and Attainment Buddhahood · AvalokiteÅ›vara Four Stages of Enlightenment · Tantric yoga · Paramitas · Mation · Laity Major Monasteries Changzhug · Drepung · Dzogchen · Ganden · Jokhang · Kumbum · Labrang· Mindroling · Namgyal · Narthang · Nechung · Palcho· Ralung · Ramoche · Sakya · Sanga · Sera · Shalu · Shechen · Tashilhunpo · Tsurphu · Yerpa Major Festivals Chotrul Duchen· Dajyur· Losar · Monlam· Sho Dun Texts Kangyur ·Tengyur ·Tibetan Canon ·Mahayana Sutras Art Sandpainting ·Thangka ·Ashtamangala ·Tree of physiology Comparative Studies Culture · List of topics Portal:Tibetan Buddhism This box: view talk The 1st Dalai Lama The 1st Dalai Lama A young monk at Labrang A young monk at Labrang Religion Tibetan Buddhism Main articles: Bön and Tibetan Buddhism Religion and spirituality is extremely important to the Tibetans and has a strong influence over all aspects of lives; ingrained deeply into their cultural heritage. Bön is the ancient traditional religion of Tibet, but following the introduction of Tantric Buddhism into Tibet by Padmasambhava this became eclipsed by Tibetan Buddhism, a distinctive form of Vajrayana. Tibetan Buddhism is practiced not only in Tibet but also in Mongolia, parts of northern India, the Buryat Republic, the Tuva Republic, and in the Republic of Kalmykia. Tibetan Buddhism has four main traditions the suffix pa is comparable to er in English: Gelugpa, Way of Virtue, also known casually as Yellow Hat, whose spiritual head is the Ganden Tripa and whose temporal, the Dalai Lama. Successive Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries. This order was founded in the 14th to 15th century by Je Tsongkhapa, based on the foundations of the Kadampa tradition. Tsongkhapa was renowned for both his scholasticism and his virtue. The Dalai Lama belongs to the Gelugpa school, and is regarded as the embodiment of the Bodhisattva of Compassion109. Kagyupa, Oral Lineage. This contains one major subsect and one minor subsect. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to Gampopa. In turn, the Dagpo Kagyu consists of four major sub-sects: the Karma Kagyu, headed by a Karmapa, the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu. There are further eight minor sub-sects, all of which trace their root to Pagtru Kagyu. Among the eight sub-sects the most notable of are the Drikung Kagyu and the Drukpa Kagyu. The once-obscure Shangpa Kagyu, which was famously represented by the 20th century teacher Kalu Rinpoche, traces its history back to the Indian master Niguma, sister of Kagyu lineage holder Naropa. This is an oral tradition which is very much concerned with the experiential dimension of mation. Its most famous exponent was Milarepa, an eleventh century mystic. Nyingmapa, The Ancient Ones. This is the oldest, the original order founded by Padmasambhava. Sakyapa, Grey Earth, headed by the Sakya Trizin, founded by Khon Konchog Gyalpo, a disciple of the great translator Drokmi Lotsawa. Sakya Pandita 1182-1251CE was the great grandson of Khon Konchog Gyalpo. This school very much represents the scholarly tradition. Islam Main article: Islam in Tibet In Tibetan cities, there are also small communities of Muslims, known as Kachee Kache, who trace their origin to immigrants from three main regions: Kashmir Kachee Yul in ancient Tibetan, Ladakh and the Central Asian Turkic countries. Islamic influence in Tibet also came from Persia. After 1959 a group of Tibetan Muslims made a case for Indian nationality based on their historic roots to Kashmir and the Indian government declared all Tibetan Muslims Indian citizens later on that year.110 There is also a well established Chinese Muslim community gya kachee, which traces its ancestry back to the Hui ethnic group of China. It is said that Muslim migrants from Kashmir and Ladakh first entered Tibet around the 12th century. Marriages and social interaction gradually led to an increase in the population until a sizable community grew up around Lhasa.citation needed Buddhist monasteries in Tibet Tashilhunpo Tashilhunpo Main article: List of Buddhist monasteries in Tibet Tibetan art Main article: Tibetan art A thangka painting in Sikkim A thangka painting in Sikkim Tibetan representations of art are intrinsically bound with Tibetan Buddhism and commonly depict deities or variations of Buddha in various forms from bronze Buddhist statues and shrines, to highly colorful thangka paintings and mandalas. Architecture Main article: Tibetan culture#Architecture Tibetan architecture contains Oriental and Indian influences, and reflects a deeply Buddhist approach. The Buddhist wheel, along with two dragons, can be seen on nearly every Gompa in Tibet. The design of the Tibetan Chörtens can vary, from roundish walls in Kham to squarish, four-sided walls in Ladakh. The most distinctive feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against frequent earthquakes in the mountainous area. The Potala Palace The Potala Palace Standing at 117 meters in height and 360 meters in width, the Potala Palace is considered as the most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of the Dalai Lama, it contains over one thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided between the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines, and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures. Music Main article: Music of Tibet Boudhanath, Nepal. 1973 Boudhanath, Nepal. 1973 The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in Tibet but also known wherever ethnic Tibetan groups are found in India, Bhutan, Nepal and further abroad. First and foremost Tibetan music is religious music, reflecting the profound influence of Tibetan Buddhism on the culture. Tibetan music often involves chanting in Tibetan or Sanskrit, as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts or in celebration of various festivals. Yang chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, such as the classical music of the popular Gelugpa school, and the romantic music of the Nyingmapa, Sakyapa and Kagyupa schools. Nangma dance music is especially popular in the karaoke bars of the urban center of Tibet, Lhasa. Another form of popular music is the classical gar style, which is performed at rituals and ceremonies. Lu are a type of songs that feature glottal vibrations and high pitches. There are also epic bards who sing of Tibet's national hero Gesar. Festivals Main article: Tibetan Festivals The Monlam Prayer Festival The Monlam Prayer Festival Tibet has various festivals which commonly are performed to worship the Buddha throughout the year. Losar is the Tibetan New Year Festival. Preparations for the festive event are manifested by special offerings to family shrine deities, painted doors with religious symbols, and other painstaking jobs done to prepare for the event. Tibetans eat Guthuk barley crumb food with filling on New Year's Eve with their families. The Monlam Prayer Festival follows it in the first month of the Tibetan calendar, falling on the fourth up to the eleventh day of the first Tibetan month. which involves many Tibetans dancing and participating in sports events and sharing picnics. The event was established in 1049 by Tsong Khapa, the founder of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama's order. Other Tibetan sand mandala Tibetan sand mandala The Potala Palace, former residence of the Dalai Lamas, is a World Heritage Site, as is Norbulingka, former summer residence of the Dalai Lama. Since 2002, Tibetans in exile have allowed a Miss Tibet beauty contest in spite of concerns that this event is considered a Western influence. The beauty contest is condemned by the Tibetan government in exile.citation needed Cuisine Main article: Tibetan cuisine A monk churning Butter tea A monk churning Butter tea The most important crop in Tibet is barley, and dough made from barley flour called tsampa, is the staple food of Tibet. This is either rolled into noodles or made into steamed dumplings called momos. Meat dishes are likely to be yak, goat, or mutton, often dried, or cooked into a spicy stew with potatoes. Mustard seed is cultivated in Tibet, and therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yak yoghurt, butter and cheese are frequently eaten, and well-prepared yoghurt is considered something of a prestige item. Butter tea is very popular to drink. Tibet in popular culture In recent years there have been a number of films produced about Tibet, most notably Hollywood films such as Seven Years in Tibet, starring Brad Pitt, and Kundun, a biography of the 14th Dalai Lama, directed by Martin Scorsese. Both of these films were banned by the Chinese government because of Tibetan nationalist overtones. Other films include Samsara, The Cup and the 1999 Himalaya, a French-American produced film with a Tibetan cast set in Nepal and Tibet. In 2005, exile Tibetan filmmaker Tenzing Sonam and his partner Ritu Sarin made Dreaming Lhasa, the first internationally recognized feature film to come out of the diaspora to explore the contemporary reality of Tibet. Kekexili: Mountain Patrol, is a film made by National Geographic about a Chinese reporter that goes to Tibet to report on the issue involving the endangerment of Tibetan Antelope. It won numerous awards at home and abroad. In 1995 a British electronic music act Banco de Gaia released the album Last Train to Lhasa, dedicated to the music of Tibet, with many samples of Tibetan chanting. Gallery Monks at Sakya Monastery Gyantse Monks at Sera Yumbo Lhakang Drepung Monastery Sera Monastery Former quarters of the Dalai Lama Thangka painting Tibetan children in Lithang References ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987: The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages, pp. 11-36. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3. ^ a b The historical status of the Dalai Lamas as actual rulers is disputed. A. Tom Grunfeld's The Making of Modern Tibet, p. 12: Given the low life expectancy in Tibet it was not uncommon for incarnations to die before, or soon after, their ascendancy to power. This resulted in long periods of rule by advisers, or, in the ease of Dalai Lama, regents. As a measure of the power that regents must have wielded it is important to note that only three of the fourteen Dalai Lamas have actually ruled Tibet. From 1751 to 1960 regents ruled for 77 percent of the time ^ Mullin, Glenn H. 2001. The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnations, pp. 47-49. Clear Light Publishers. Santa Fe, New Mexico. ISBN 1-57416-092-3. ^ a b Goldstein, Melvyn, C., What is Tibet? - Fact and Fancy from Change, Conflict and Continuity among a Community of Nomadic Pastoralist: A Case Study from Western Tibet, 1950-1990, 1994, pp76-87 ^ Petech, L., China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet, p51 p98 ^ Grunfeld, A. Tom, The Making of Modern Tibet, M.E. Sharpe, p245 ^ Powers 2004, pg. 158 ^ Beckwith 1987: 165-167 ^ Translated by H. E. Richardson in: A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions. H. E. Richardson. Royal Asiatic Society 1985, pp. 119-127. ISBN 0-94759300/4. ^ Abbé Huc. The Land of the Lamas. Taken from: Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846 by MM. Huc and Gabet, translated by William Hazlitt, p. 123. ^ Chapman, F. Spencer. 1940. Lhasa: The Holy City, p. 135. Readers Union Ltd., London. ^ Hosie, A. 1905. Mr. Hosie's Journey to Tibet | 1904. First published as CD 2586. Reprint 2001: The Stationary Office, London, p. 136. ISBN 0-11-702467-8. ^ a b Partridge, Eric, Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, New York, 1966, p. 719. ^ a b c Behr, W., Stephan V. Beyer, The Classical Tibetan Language book review, Oriens 34 1994: 557-564. ^ a b Sellheim, R. Oriens - Journal of the International Society for Oriental Research: 1994. Brill Publishers, 1994. page 559 ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1922. English ion with minor revisions in 1972 Stanford University Press, p. 31. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7. ^ China Tibet Information Center The Origin of the Name of Tibet ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1922. English ion with minor revisions in 1972 Stanford University Press, p. 30. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7. ^ See Transliteration into Chinese characters for more information on the relationship between literal meanings and sound transliterations. ^ 现代汉è¯è¯?å…¸,é? æ?±æ¼¢è‹±å¤§è¾å…¸. ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization 1922. English ion with minor revisions in 1972 Stanford University Press, pp. 30-31. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7. ^ Kapstein, Matthew T. The Tibetans, p. 19. 2006. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22574-4. ^ Kapstein, Matthew T. The Tibetans, p. 22. 2006. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22574-4. ^ Beckwith 1987: 146. ^ Marks, Thomas A. 1978. Nanchao and Tibet in South-western China and Central Asia. The Tibet Journal. Vol. 3, No. 4. Winter 1978, pp. 13-16. ^ 'A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions. H. E. Richardson. Royal Asiatic Society 1985, pp. 106-43. ISBN 0-94759300/4. ^ Laird, Thomas 2006. The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 112-113. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. ^ Karenina Kollmar-Paulenz, Kleine Geschichte Tibets, München 2006, p. 98-104 ^ Laird, Thomas 2006. The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 142-143. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. ^ Micheal Weiers, Geschichte der Mongolen, Stuttgart 2004, pp. 182ff. ^ Rene Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, New Brunswick 1970, p. 522. ^ a b Richardson, Hugh E. 1984. Tibet and its History. Second ion, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 pbk ^ Stein, R. A. Tibetan Civilization. 1972, p. 85. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 cloth; ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.paper ^ Laird, Thomas 2006. The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, p. 226. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. ^ Wang Jiawei, The Historical Status of China's Tibet, 2000, pp. 162-6. ^ Wang Jiawei, The Historical Status of China's Tibet, 2000, pp. 170-3. ^ Goldstein, M.C., A History of Modern Tibet: The Demise of the Lamaist State, University of California Press, p44 ^ Teltscher, Kate 2006. The High Road to China: George Bogle, the Panchen Lama, and the First British Expion to Tibet, pp. 244-246. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York. ISBN 978-0-374-21700-6. ^ Teltscher, Kate. 2006. The High Road to China: George Bogle, the Panchen Lama and the First British Expion to Tibet, p. 57. Bloomsbury, London, 2006. ISBN 0374217009; ISBN 978-0-7475-8484-1; Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York. ISBN 978-0-374-21700-6 ^ Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet 1906 ^ Bell, 1924, p. 288. ^ McKay, 1997, pp. 230-1. ^ a b Proclamation Issued by H.H. The Dalai Lama XIII ^ Udo B. Barkmann, Geschichte der Mongolei, Bonn 1999, p380ff ^ Tom A. Grunfeld, in his The Making of Modern Tibet, p. 65. ^ Bell, Charles, Tibet Past and Present, 1924, pp. 150-151 ^ Treaty text of the Simla Convention of 1914 ^ See Goldstein, Melvyn C., A History of Modern Tibet, p.75 for details ^ Laird, Thomas 2006. The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 320-328. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. ^ Powers 2004, pp. 11-12 ^ Powers 2004, pp. 23-24 ^ 'Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts', The Department of Information and International Relations: Central Tibetan Administration, 1996. p. 53 ^ Peng Xizhe å½å¸Œå“², Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces, Population and Development Review 13, no. 4 1987, 639-70. For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this link ^ Tibet, Tibet ISBN 1-4000-4100-7, pp. 278-82 ^ Warren W. Smith, Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations ISBN 0-8133-3155-2, p. 600 ^ Powers 2004, pp. 141-2 ^ Powers 2004, pg. 185 ^ Train heads for Tibet, carrying fears of change ^ Personnel Changes in Lhasa Reveal Preference for Chinese Over Tibetans, Says TIN Report ^ Jiawei, Wang, The Historical Status of China's Tibet, 2000, pp 194-7 ^ Peter Hessler, 'Tibet Through Chinese Eyes', The Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1999 ^ Powers 2004, pg. 143 ^ The petition of 10th Panchen Lama in 1962 ^ 'Tibet: 6-year old boy missing and over 50 detained in Panchen Lama dispute', Amnesty International, January 18, 1996 ^ Interview with Tashi Wangid, David Shankbone, Wikinews, November 14, 2007. ^ Goble, Paul. China: Analysis From Washington - A Breakthrough For Tibet, World Tibet Network News, Canada Tibet Committee, August 31, 2001. ^ Spencer, Richard 2005-03-15. Tibet ready to sacrifice sovereignty, says leader, The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. ^ Accept Tibet as part of China: Dalai Lama, The Hindu 2007-01-24. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. ^ Tibetans see little point in more talks with China: envoy, AFP, July 15, 2008. ^ Shakabpa, Tsepon; Victor C. Falkenheim and Turrell V. Wylie Tibet. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 2008-04-27. ^ Center for South Asia Studies: University of California, Berkeley 1 ^ South Asian Studies at Emory ^ Circle of Blue, May 8, 2008 China, Tibet, and the strategic power of water ^ China's Tibet Fact and Figures 2003, China Tibet Information Service 2002-08-26. Retrieved on 2006-02-24. ^ Grunfeld, A. Tom, The Making of Modern Tibet, p224 ^ Xu Mingxu, Intrugues and Devoutness, Brampton, p134, ISBN 1-896745-95-4 ^ The 14th Dalai Lama affirmed that Tibetans have never paid tax to Beijing, see Donnet, Pierre-Antoine, Tibet mort ou vif, 1994, p104 Taiwan ion, ISBN 9571310409 ^ Tibet's economy depends on Beijing, NPR News 2002-08-26. Retrieved on 2006-02-24. ^ High wages in Tibet benefit the privileged, Asia Labour News 2005-02-21. Retrieved on 2006-02-24. ^ China opens world's highest railway, Australian Broadcasting Corporation 2005-07-01. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. ^ China completes railway to Tibet, BBC News 2005-10-15. Retrieved on 2006-07-04. ^ Deemed a road to ruin, Tibetans say Beijing rail-way poses latest threat to minority culture, Boston Globe 2002-08-26. Retrieved on 2006-07-04. ^ China Opens 1st Train Service to Tibet, Washington Post 2006-06-30. Retrieved on 2006-07-04. ^ Dalai Lama Urges 'Wait And See' On Tibet Railway, Deutsche Presse Agentur 2006-06-30. Retrieved on 2006-07-04. ^ a b Valuable mineral deposits found along Tibet railroad route. Reuters 2007-01-25. Retrieved on 2007-11-05. ^ Dalai Lama accuses China of 'demographic aggression' ^ People's Daily, Beijing, November 10, 1959, in Population transfer and control ^ 5,416,021 At the time of the census of 2000: EnglishChinese China Statistical Yearbook 2003, p. 48 ^ L'évolution démographique dans le monde : I - La Chine ^ 1954 Chinese Census Report Chinese ^ Xinhua News report Chinese ^ The law of birth control, The People's Republic of China ^ SINA News report Chinese ^ Population of Tibet 1950-1990 Chinese ^ Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics of China 国家统计局人å?£å’Œç¤¾ä¼šç§‘技统计å?¸ and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China 国家民æ—?事务委员会ç»?济å?‘展å?¸, eds. Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China 《2000年人å?£æ™®æŸ¥ä¸å›½æ°‘æ—?人å?£èµ„料》. 2 vols. Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House æ°‘æ—?出版社, 2003 ISBN 7-105-05425-5. ^ International Campaign for Tibet: Tibet: Human Rights in Tibet ^ Human Rights Violations in Tibet, Statement by Elliot Sperling, June 2000 ^ Globalization To Tibet ^ Tibet Environmental Watch - Development ^ Document - People's Republic of China: Call for accountability for Tibetan deaths in custody in Drapchi Prison | Amnesty International ^ Laird, Thomas 2006. The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 352-357. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. ^ Human Rights in Tibet at a glance ^ Reporters sans frontières - China ^ Tibet: Tightening of Control TCHRD - Publications - 1999 ^ Laird, Thomas 2006. The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, pp. 357-358. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1. ^ Untitled Document ^ http://www.freetibet.org/info/facts/fact1.html ^ Violation of Subsistence Rights TCHRD - Publications - 1999 - Tibet: Tightening of Control ^ Avalokitesvara, Chenrezig ^ Masood Butt, 'Muslims of Tibet', The Office of Tibet, January/February 1994 Further reading Allen, Charles 2004. Duel in the Snows: The True Story of the Younghusband Mission to Lhasa. London: John Murray, 2004. ISBN 0-7195-5427-6. Bell, Charles 1924. Tibet: Past Present. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Dowman, Keith 1988. The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim's Guide. Routledge Kegan Paul. London, ISBN 0-7102-1370-0. New York, ISBN 0-14-019118-6. Goldstein, Melvyn C.; with the help of Gelek Rimpoche. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers 1993, ISBN 81-215-0582-8. University of California 1991, ISBN 0-520-07590-0. Grunfeld, Tom 1996. The Making of Modern Tibet. ISBN 1-56324-713-5. Gyatso, Palden 1997. The Autobiography of a Tibetan Monk. Grove Press. NY, NY. ISBN 0-8021-3574-9 Human Rights in China: China, Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions, London, Minority Rights Group International, 2007 McKay, Alex 1997. Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre 1904-1947. London: Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-0627-5. Norbu, Thubten Jigme; Turnbull, Colin 1968. Tibet: Its History, Religion and People. Reprint: Penguin Books 1987. Pachen, Ani; Donnely, Adelaide 2000. Sorrow Mountain: The Journey of a Tibetan Warrior Nun. Kodansha America, Inc. ISBN 1-56836-294-3. Petech, Luciano 1997. China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet. T'oung Pao Monographies, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9-00403-442-0. Powers, John. History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China 2004 Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195174267 Rabgey, Tashi 2004. Sino-Tibetan Dialogue in the Post-Mao Era: Lessons and Prospects. Washigton: East-West Center. ISBN 1932728228. Samuel, Geoffrey 1993. Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies. Smithsonian ISBN 1-56098-231-4. Schell, Orville 2000. Virtual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood. Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-4381-0. Shakya, Tsering 1999. The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11814-7. Smith, Warren W. 1996. History of Tibet: Nationalism and Self-determination. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0813331552. Smith, Warren W. 2004. China's Policy on Tibetan Autonomy - EWC Working Papers No. 2. Washington: East-West Center. Smith, Warren W. 2008. China's Tibet?: Autonomy or Assimilation. Rowman Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 9780742539891. Sperling, Elliot 2004. The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics. Washington: East-West Center. ISBN 1932728139. - online version Stein, R. A. 1962. Tibetan Civilization. First published in French; English translation by J. E. Stapelton Driver. Reprint: Stanford University Press with minor revisions from 1977 Faber Faber ion, 1995. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1. Thurman, Robert 2002. Robert Thurman on Tibet. DVD. ASIN B00005Y722. Wilby, Sorrel 1988. Journey Across Tibet: A Young Woman's 1,900-mile 3,060 km Trek Across the Rooftop of the World. Contemporary Books. ISBN 0-8092-4608-2. Wilson, Brandon 2004. Yak Butter Blues: A Tibetan Trek of Faith. Pilgrim's Tales. ISBN 0977053660, ISBN 0977053679. second ion 2005 Wang Jiawei 2000. The Historical Status of China's Tibet. ISBN-7-80113-304-8. Tibet wasn't always ours, says Chinese scholar by Venkatesan Vembu, Daily News Analysis, 22 February 2007 See also: This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. Image:Example.of.complex.text.rendering.svg This article contains Indic text. Without rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Indic characters; or irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tibet Amdo and Kham in eastern Tibet Évariste Régis Huc Abbé Huc visited Tibet in 1845-6, and wrote his observations in Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années 1844-1846. Francis Younghusband led a punitive military expion to Tibet in 1904. Alexandra David-Neel visited Lhasa in 1924, and wrote several books about the country and its culture. History of Tibet Human rights in the People's Republic of China Central Tibetan Administration aka Tibetan Government in Exile International Tibet Independence Movement aka Free Tibet Movement List of active autonomist and secessionist movements Tibetan American Seven Years in Tibet Lobsang Rampa Kundun Last Train to Lhasa Tibetan Buddhism South Tibet Nangpa La killings Ladakh Baltistan Phuntsog Nyidron Sinicization of Tibet External links Find more about Tibet on 's sister projects: Dictionary definitions Textbooks Quotations Source texts Images and media News stories Learning resources Against PRC rule and policies in Tibet Website of the Office of Tibet,London Tibetan Government in Exile's government site Students for a Free Tibet's website Students for a Free Tibet UK People's Movement For An Independent Tibet Tibetan Review The International Campaign for Tibet Tibet News Site Tibet Online The Tibet Society and Tibet Relief Fund Canada Tibet Committee Australia Tibet Council Save Tibet-Austria Team for Tibet Belgium Etudiants pour un Tibet Libre Students for a Free Tibet - France de l'association France Tibet Tibet Info France Tibet Initiative Munich Friends of Tibet Greece Tibetan Community in Ireland Amici del Tibet - Friends of Tibet-Italy Tibet Vigil London Israeli Friends of the Tibetan People Article on Tibet and Campaign PRC sites on PRC rule and policies in Tibet Tibetan History on the China Tibet Information Center of the PRC White Paper on Tibetan Culture and Homa Apolitical Tibetan Studies Internet Resources Pictures of Tibet Haiwei Trails - Timeline of Tibet The Language of Tibet Tibet Photo Gallery - A complete Travel Photos Tibet and the United States of America - an Annotated Chronology of Relations Since 1900 Tibet travel guide from Wikitravel v d e Territorial disputes in East, South, and Southeast Asia Type Territory Currently Administered by Claimants Land: Aksai Chin Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of India Flag of the Republic of China 2 Arunachal Pradesh Flag of India Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of India Flag of the Republic of China 2 Baekdu Mountain Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of North Korea Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of South Korea Flag of North Korea 2 Flag of the Republic of China 2 East Turkestan Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China 1 Flag of the Republic of China 2 Heixiazi/Bolshoy Ussuriysky Eastern part2 Flag of Russia Flag of Russia Flag of the Republic of China Indo-Bangladesh enclaves3 Flag of Bangladesh Flag of India Flag of Bangladesh Flag of India Kashmir3 Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of India Flag of Pakistan Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of India Flag of Pakistan Flag of the Republic of China 2 Kachin State Flag of Burma Flag of Burma 1 Flag of the Republic of China 2 Kayin State Flag of Burma Flag of Burma 1 Korean Peninsula and its adjacent islands3 Flag of North Korea Flag of South Korea Flag of North Korea Flag of South Korea Mainland China2 Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the Republic of China Mongolia2 Flag of Mongolia Flag of Mongolia Flag of the Republic of China Pamir Mountains Northern and central parts2 Flag of Tajikistan Flag of Tajikistan Flag of the Republic of China Wakhan Corridor2 Flag of Afghanistan Flag of Afghanistan Flag of the Republic of China Pattani Flag of Thailand Flag of Thailand 1 Sabah2 Flag of Malaysia Flag of Malaysia Flag of the Philippines Shan State Flag of Burma Flag of Burma 1 Sixty-Four Villages East of the Heilongjiang River2 Flag of Russia Flag of Russia Flag of the Republic of China Tannu Uriankhai now Tuva Republic of Russia2 Flag of Russia Flag of Russia Flag of the Republic of China Tibet Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of Tibet 1 Flag of the Republic of China 2 Trans-Karakoram Tract Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of India Flag of the Republic of China 2 Wa State Flag of Burma Flag of Burma 1 Islands and Waters: Kinmen Flag of the Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the Republic of China Liancourt Rocks Flag of South Korea Flag of Japan Flag of North Korea 2 Flag of South Korea Macclesfield Bank Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the Philippines Flag of the Republic of China Matsu Flag of the Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the Republic of China Paracel Islands Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the Republic of China Flag of Vietnam Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge Flag of Singapore Flag of Malaysia Flag of Singapore Pratas Islands Flag of the Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the Republic of China Scarborough Shoal Flag of the Philippines Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the Philippines Flag of the Republic of China Senkaku Islands Flag of Japan Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of Japan Flag of the Republic of China Sir Creek3 Flag of India Flag of Pakistan Flag of India Flag of Pakistan Socotra Rock Flag of South Korea Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of North Korea 2 Flag of South Korea Flag of the Republic of China 2 Southern Kuril Islands Flag of Russia Flag of Japan Flag of Russia Spratly Islands3 Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of Malaysia Flag of the Philippines Flag of the Republic of China Flag of Vietnam Flag of Brunei Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of Malaysia Flag of the Philippines Flag of the Republic of China Flag of Vietnam Taiwan and Pescadores2 Flag of the Republic of China Flag of the People's Republic of China Flag of the Republic of China Notes: 1Government in exile/exiled group. 2Inactive dispute. 3Divided among multiple claimants. 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