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20-September-2008 09:29:08 - Tobacco May 2008 For other uses, see Tobacco disambiguation. For the botanical genus, see Nicotiana. Shredded tobacco leaf for pipe smoking Shredded tobacco leaf for pipe smoking Tobacco can also be pressed into plugs and sliced into flakes Tobacco can also be pressed into plugs and sliced into flakes Broadleaf tobacco Broadleaf tobacco Tobacco is an agricultural product, recognized as an addictive drug, processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. The word nicotiana as well as nicotine was named in honor of Jean Nicot, French ambassador to Portugal, who in 1559 sent it as a medicine to the court of Catherine de Medici.1 It is most commonly smoked in the form of cigarettes or cigars. Tobacco has been growing on both American continents since about 6000 BC and was used by native cultures by around 3000 BC.citation needed Employed as an anthelmintic2, it has been smoked, in one form or another, since about 3000 BC.citation needed Tobacco has a long history of ceremonial use in Native American culture. It has played an important role in the political, economic, and cultural history of the United States of America. Dried, cured, and unprocessed tobacco is commercially available all over the world. Smoke from burning, or otherwise heated, tobacco can be inhaled in the forms of cigarettes, cigars, stem pipes, bongs, and hookahs. Tobacco can also be chewed, dipped placed between the cheek and gum, or sniffed into the nose as finely powdered snuff. Many countries set minimum legal smoking ages, regulating the purchase and use of tobacco products. Bhutan is the only country in the world where tobacco sales are illegal.3 According to the World Health Organization, tobacco smoke is the second largest cause of death worldwide, and is reported to have been responsible for the deaths of 100 million people in the 20th century.4 All methods of tobacco consumption result in varying quantities of nicotine being absorbed into the user's bloodstream. Over time, tolerance and dependence develop. Absorption quantity, frequency, and speed of tobacco consumption are believed to be directly related to biological strength of nicotine dependence, addiction, and tolerance. 5 6. Contents 1 Usages 1.1 Controlled substance 1.2 Medicine and pesticide 2 Biology 2.1 Herbatology 2.2 Healthy effects 3 History 3.1 Etymology 3.2 Early history 3.3 Growth and popularization 3.4 Industrialization 3.5 Contemporary politics 4 Processing 4.1 Cultivation 4.2 Curing 4.3 Types 4.4 Products 5 Culture 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Bibliography 8 External links Usages Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. August 2008 August 2008 Controlled substance Tobacco is a controlled substance for its habit forming characteristics. Medicine and pesticide Tobacco has been used as a traditional medicine in treating insect bites, cuts, and so forth. Because of nicotine's lethality to insects is has been used as a pesticide. Biology August 2008 Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. August 2008 Herbatology Main article: Nicotiana There are many species of tobacco, which are encompassed by the genus of herbs Nicotiana. It is part of the nightshade family Solanaceae indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa and the South Pacific. Many plants contain nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin that is particularly harmful to insects. However, tobaccos contain a higher concentration of nicotine than most other plants. In addition, unlike many other Solanaceae they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals. Healthy effects Main article: Health effects of tobacco Smoking any tobacco product, %, Males Smoking any tobacco product, %, Males7 Smoking any tobacco product, %, Females Smoking any tobacco product, %, Females7 The effects of tobacco on health are significant, depending on the way the tobacco is used smoked, snuffed or chewed and the amount. Major health effects of smoking, the most common use of tobacco, include an increased risk in lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. The World Health Organization estimated in 20028 that in developed countries, 26% of male deaths and 9% of female deaths were attributable to smoking. Similarly, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide.9 Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in the developed world they continue to rise in developing countries. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006 falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults.10 In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.11 History Etymology The Spanish word tabaco is thought to have its origin in Arawakan language, particularly, in the Taino language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to refer either to a roll of tobacco leaves according to Bartolome de Las Casas, 1552, or to the tabago, a kind of Y-shaped pipe for sniffing tobacco smoke according to Oviedo; with the leaves themselves being referred to as Cohiba12. However, similar words in Spanish and Italian were commonly used from 1410 to define medicinal herbs, originating from the Arabic tabbaq, a word reportedly dating to the 9th century, as the name of various herbs13. Tobacco flower, leaves, and buds Tobacco flower, leaves, and buds Early history See also: History of commercial tobacco in the United States Las Casas vividly described how the first scouts sent by Columbus into the interior of Cuba found ...men with half-burned wood in their hands and certain herbs to take their smokes, which are some dry herbs put in a certain leaf, also dry, like those the boys make on the day of the Passover of the Holy Ghost; and having lighted one part of it, by the other they suck, absorb, or receive that smoke inside with the breath, by which they become benumbed and almost drunk, and so it is said they do not feel fatigue. These, muskets as we will call them, they call tabacos. I knew Spaniards on this island of Española who were accustomed to take it, and being reprimanded for it, by telling them it was a vice, they replied they were unable to cease using it. I do not know what relish or benefit they found in it.14 Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas by the time European settlers arrived and introduced the practice to Europe, where it became popular. At high doses, tobacco can become hallucinogeniccitation needed; accordingly, Native Americans did not always use the drug recreationally. Instead, it was often consumed as an entheogen; among some tribes, this was done only by experienced shamans or medicine men.citation needed Eastern North American tribes would carry large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item and would often smoke it in pipes, either in defined ceremonies that were considered sacred, or to seal a bargain15, and they would smoke it at such occasions in all stages of life, even in childhood16. It was believed that tobacco was a gift from the Creator and that the exhaled tobacco smoke was capable of carrying one's thoughts and prayers to heaven17. Apart from smoking, tobacco had a number of uses as medicine. As a pain killer it was used for earache and toothache and occasionally as a poultice. Smoking was said by the desert Indians to be a cure for colds, especially if the tobacco was mixed with the leaves of the small Desert Sage, Salvia Dorrii, or the root of Indian Balsam or Cough Root, Leptotaenia multifida, the addition of which was thought to be particularly good for asthma and tuberculosis.18 In addition to being smoked, uncured tobacco was often eaten, used in enemas, or drunk as extracted juice.citation needed Early missionaries often reported on the ecstatic state caused by tobacco. As its use spread into Western cultures, however, it was no longer used primarily for entheogenic or religious purposes, although religious use of tobacco is still common among many indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas. Among the Cree and Ojibway of Canada and the north-central United States, it is offered to the Creator, with prayers, and is used in sweat lodges, pipe ceremonies, smudging, and is presented as a gift. A gift of tobacco is tradition when asking an Ojibway elder a question of a spiritual nature. Because of its sacred nature, tobacco abuse thoughtlessly and addictively chain smoking is seriously frowned upon by the Algonquian tribes of Canada, as it is believed that if one so abuses the plant, it will abuse that person in return, causing sickness. The proper and traditional native way of offering the smoke is said to involve directing it toward the four cardinal points north, south, east, and west, rather than holding it deeply within the lungs for prolonged periods19. Growth and popularization Following the arrival of Europeans, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling colonization, and also became a driving factor in the incorporation of African slave labor. The Spanish introduced tobacco to Europeans in about 1518, and by 1523, Diego Columbus mentioned a tobacco merchant of Lisbon in his will, showing how quickly the traffic had sprung up. Nicot, French ambassador in Lisbon, sent samples to Paris in 1559. The French, Spanish, and Portuguese initially referred to the plant as the sacred herb because of its valuable medicinal properties14. In 1571, A Spanish doctor named Nicolas Monardes wrote a book about the history of medicinal plants of the new world. In this he claimed that tobacco could cure 36 health problems. 20 Sir Francis Drake is cred with taking the first Virginia tobacco to Europe, referring to it as tobah as early as 1578. The importation of tobacco into Europe was not without resistance and controversy in the 17th century. Stuart King James I wrote a famous polemic titled A Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604, in which the king denounced tobacco use as a custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the Nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the Lungs, and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, neerest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the pit that is bottomelesse. In that same year, an English statute was enacted that placed a heavy protective tariff on every pound of tobacco brought into England21. In 1609, John Rolfe arrived at the Jamestown Settlement in Virginia, and is cred as the first settler to have successfully raised tobacco commonly referred to at that time as brown gold22 for commercial use. The tobacco raised in Virginia at that time, Nicotiana rustica,citation needed did not suit European tastes, but Rolfe raised a more popular variety, Nicotiana tabacum, from seeds brought with him from Bermuda.citation needed Tobacco was used as currency by the Virginia settlers for years, and Rolfe was able to make his fortune in farming it for export at Varina Farms Plantation. When he left for England with his wife, Pocahontas a daughter of Chief Powhatan, he had become wealthy. Returning to Jamestown, following Pocahontas' death in England, Rolfe continued in his efforts to improve the quality of commercial tobacco, and, by 1620, 40,000 pounds 18,000 kg pounds of tobacco were shipped to England. By the time John Rolfe died in 1622, Jamestown was thriving as a producer of tobacco, and its population had topped 4,000. Tobacco led to the importation of the colony's first black slaves in 1619. In the year 1616, 2,500 pounds 1,100 kg of tobacco were produced in Jamestown, Virginia, quickly rising up to 119,000 pounds 54,000 kg in 1620.citation needed This 1670 painting shows enslaved Africans working in the tobacco sheds of a colonial tobacco plantation This 1670 painting shows enslaved Africans working in the tobacco sheds of a colonial tobacco plantation Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, tobacco continued to be the cash crop of the Virginia Colony, as well as The Carolinas. Large tobacco warehouses filled the areas near the wharves of new, thriving towns such as Dumfries on the Potomac, Richmond and Manchester at the fall line head of navigation on the James, and Petersburg on the Appomattox. Until 1883, tobacco excise tax accounted for one third of internal revenue collected by the United States government.citation needed A historian of the American South in the late 1860s reported on typical usage in the region where it was grown:23 The chewing of tobacco was well-nigh universal. This habit had been widespread among the agricultural population of America both North and South before the war. Soldiers had found the quid a solace in the field and continued to revolve it in their mouths upon returning to their homes. Out of doors where his life was principally led the chewer spat upon his lands without offence to other men, and his homes and public buildings were supplied with spittoons. Brown and yellow parabolas were projected to right and left toward these receivers, but very often without the careful aim which made for clean living. Even the pews of fashionable churches were likely to contain these familiar conveniences. The large numbers of Southern men, and these were of the better class officers in the Confederate army and planters, worth $20,000 or more, and barred from general amnesty who presented themselves for the pardon of President Johnson, while they sat awaiting his pleasure in the ante-room at the White House, covered its floor with pools and rivulets of their spittle. An observant traveller in the South in 1865 said that in his belief seven-tenths of all persons above the age of twelve years, both male and female, used tobacco in some form. Women could be seen at the doors of their cabins in their bare feet, in their dirty one-piece cotton garments, their chairs tipped back, smoking pipes made of corn cobs into which were fitted reed stems or goose quills. Boys of eight or nine years of age and half-grown girls smoked. Women and girls dipped in their houses, on their porches, in the public parlors of hotels and in the streets. As a lucrative crop, tobacco has been the subject of a great deal of biological and genetic research. The economic impact of Tobacco Mosaic disease was the impetus that led to the isolation of Tobacco mosaic virus, the first virus to be identifiedcitation needed; the fortunate coincidence that it is one of the simplest viruses and can self-assemble from purified nucleic acid and protein led, in turn, to the rapid advancement of the field of virology. The 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was shared by Wendell Merh Stanley for his 1935 work crystallizing the virus and showing that it remains active. Tobacco as a commercial product first arrived in the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century.24 By 1700, it had reached Europe and Asia, and would soon arrive in the Middle East7, where it was welcomed with the same enthusiasm with which coffee had been greeted, two centuries earlier. When tobacco first arrived in the Ottoman Empire, it attracted the attention of doctors7 and became a commonly prescribed medicine for many ailments. Although tobacco was initially prescribed as medicine, further study led to claims that smoking caused dizziness, fatigue, dulling of the senses, and a foul taste/odour in the mouth.25 In 1682, Damascene jurist Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi declared: Tobacco has now become extremely famous in all the countries of Islam ... People of all kinds have used it and devoted themselves to it ... I have even seen young children of about five years applying themselves to it.26 In 1750, a Damascene townsmen observed a number of women greater than the men, sitting along the bank of the Barada River. They were eating and drinking, and drinking coffee and smoking tobacco just as the men were doing.26 Industrialization August 2008 Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. August 2008 Following the American civil war, the tobacco industry struggled as it attempts to adapt. Not only did the labor force change from slavery to sharecropping, but a change in demand also occurred. As in Europe, there was a desire for not only snuff, pipes and cigars, but cigarettes appeared as well. With a change in demand and a change in labor force, James Bonsack, an avid craftsman, in 1881 created a machine that revolutionized cigarette production. The machine chopped the tobacco, then dropped a certain amount of the tobacco into a long tube of paper, which the machine would then roll and push out the end where it would be sliced by the machine into individual cigarettes. This machine operated at thirteen times the speed of a human cigarette roller.27 This caused an enourmous growth in the tobacco industry which remained so until the scientific revelations discovered the health consequences of smoking in the mid-20th century.28 Contemporary politics August 2008 Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. August 2008 See also: Tobacco litigation and Tobacco lobby To reduce the harm that tobacco has made to humankind, the World Health OrganizationWHO successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003.29The Convention is designed to push for effective legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco.In recent years, a lot of smoking cessation products with nicotine have emerged on the market, such as chewing gum and patches,Ruyan electronic cigarette, invented by Mr Hon Lik of Ruyan Group Holdings Limited. Processing Cultivation August 2008 Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. August 2008 Main article: Cultivation of tobacco Tobacco plants growing in a field in Intercourse, Pennsylvania Tobacco plants growing in a field in Intercourse, Pennsylvania Tobacco is cultivated similar to other agricultural products. Seeds are scattered onto the surface of the soil, as their germination is activated by light. After the plants have reached a certain height, they are transplanted into fields. This was originally done by making a relatively large hole in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, then placing the small plant in the hole. Tobacco can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a sickle. In the nineteenth century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco may go through several so-called pullings, more commonly known as topping topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically removed and, eventually, entirely harvested. Curing This article may require cleanup to meet 's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. August 2008 August 2008 Myrtleford, Victoria, Australia: historic tobacco kiln Myrtleford, Victoria, Australia: historic tobacco kiln Sun-cured tobacco, Bastam, Iran. Sun-cured tobacco, Bastam, Iran. Cut plants or pulled leaves are immediately transferred to tobacco barns kiln houses, where they will be cured. Curing methods vary with the type of tobacco grown, and tobacco barn design varies accordingly. Air-cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, sweet flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are air cured. Fire-cured tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on continuous or intermittent low smoulder and takes between three days and ten weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. . Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire cured. Flue-cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier-poles in curing barns Aus: kilns, also traditionally called Oasts. These barns have flues which run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process will generally take about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine. Sun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey, Greece and other Merranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes. Traditional curing barns in the U.S. are falling into disuse, as the trend toward using prefabricated metal curing machines within factories allows greater efficiency. These machines are also found on location at tobacco farms in 2nd world countries. Curing and subsequent aging allows for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves very similar and give a sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavor that contribute to the smoothness of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar which glycates protein and is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts AGEs, a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer.30. Levels of AGE's is dependent on the curing method used. Non-aged or low quality tobacco is often flavored with these naturally occurring compounds. Tobacco flavoring is a significant source of revenue for the international multi-million dollar flavor and fragrance industry. The aging process continues for a period of months and often extends into the post-curing harvest process. After tobacco is cured, it is moved from the curing barn into a storage area for processing. If whole plants were cut, the leaves are removed from the tobacco stalks in a process called stripping. For both cut and pulled tobacco, the leaves are then sorted into different grades. In colonial times, the tobacco was then prized into hogsheads for transportation. In bright tobacco regions, prizing was replaced by stacking wrapped hands into loose piles to be sold at auction. Today, most cured tobacco is baled before sales are made under pre-sold contracts. Types August 2008 Main article: Types of tobacco There are a number of types of tobacco include but are not limited to: Aromatic Fire-cured, it is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States, it is grown in northern middle Tennessee, central Kentucky and in Virginia. Fire-cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee are used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends. Another fire-cured tobacco is Latakia and is produced from oriental varieties of N. tabacum. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in Cyprus and Syria. Brightleaf tobacco, Brightleaf is commonly known as Virginia tobacco, often regardless of which state they are planted. Prior to the American Civil War, most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. This type of tobacco was planted in fertile lowlands, used a robust variety of leaf, and was either fire cured or air cured. Most Canadian cigarettes are made from 100% pure Virginia tobacco.31 Burley tobacco, is an air-cured tobacco used primarily for cigarette production. In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from palletized seeds placed in polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April. Cavendish is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a type of it. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced out of any tobacco type but is usually one of, or a blend of Kentucky, Virginia, and Burley and is most commonly used for pipe tobacco and cigars. Criollo tobacco is a type of tobacco, primarily used in the making of cigars. It was, by most accounts, one of the original Cuban tobaccos that emerged around the time of Columbus. Dokham, is a tobacco of Iranian origin mixed with leaves, bark, and herbs for smoking in a midwakh. Oriental tobacco, is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety Nicotiana tabacum that is grown in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and F.Y.R.O.M. Oriental tobacco is frequently referred to as Turkish tobacco, as these regions were all historically part of the Ottoman Empire. Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of Oriental tobacco; today, its main use is in blends of pipe and especially cigarette tobacco a typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley and Oriental. Perique, A farmer called Pierre Chenet is cred with first turning this local tobacco into the Perique in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation. Considered the truffle of pipe tobaccos, it is used as a component in many blended pipe tobaccos, but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time, the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but none is now sold for this purpose. It is typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength, and coolness to the blend. Shade tobacco, is cultivated in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Early Connecticut colonists acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes and began cultivating the plant commercially, even though the Puritans referred to it as the evil weed. The industry has weathered some major catastrophes, including a devastating hailstorm in 1929, and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000, but is now in danger of disappearing altogether, given the value of the land to real estate speculators. White Burley, In 1865, George Webb of Brown County, Ohio planted Red Burley seeds he had purchased, and found that a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look. The air-cured leaf was found to be more mild than other types of tobacco. Wild Tobacco, is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and parts of South America. Its botanical name is Nicotiana rustica. Y1 is a strain of tobacco that was cross-bred by Brown Williamson to obtain an unusually high nicotine content. It became controversial in the 1990s when the United States Food and Drug Administration FDA used it as evidence that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.32 Products March 2007 Main article: Tobacco products Tobacco can be processed into a number of products which include but are not limited to: Chewing tobacco, Chewing is one of the oldest ways of consuming tobacco leaves. It is consumed orally, but is rare consumed though actual chewing. Small amounts are placed at the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently compacted, thus it can often times be encompass Dipping tobacco. This stimulates the the salve glands, which led to the development of the spittoon. Creamy snuff, is a tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin, spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed mainly to women in India, and is known by the brand names Ipco made by Asha Industries, Denobac, Tona, Ganesh. It is locally known as mishri in some parts of Maharashtra. Dipping tobacco, is a form of smokeless tobacco. Dip is occasionally referred to as chew, and because of this, it is commonly confused with chewing tobacco, which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched' out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums. Gutka, also spelled gutkha, guttkha, guthka is a preparation of crushed betel nut, tobacco, and sweet or savory flavorings. It is manufactured in India and exported to a few other countries. A mild stimulant, it is sold across India in small, individual-size packets. Snuff is a generic term for fine-ground smokeless tobacco products. Originally the term referred only to dry snuff, a fine tan dust popular mainly in the eighteenth century. Snuff powder originated in the UK town of Great Harwood and was famously ground in the town's monument prior to local distribution and transport further up north to Scotland. There are two major varieties which include European dry and American moist; although American snuff is often referred to as dipping tobacco. Snus, is a moist powder tobacco product that is consumed by placing it under the upper lip for extended periods of time. It is a form of snuff that is used in a manner similar to American dipping tobacco, but typically does not result in the need for spitting. Topical tobacco paste is sometimes recommended as a treatment for wasp, hornet, fire ant, scorpion, and bee stings.33 An amount equivalent to the contents of a cigarette is mashed in a cup with about a 0.5 to 1 teaspoon of water to make a paste that is then applied to the affected area. Tobacco water is a traditional organic insecticide used in domestic gardening. Tobacco dust can be used similarly. It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled the mixture can be applied as a spray, or 'painted' on to the leaves of garden plants, where it will prove deadly to insects. Culture August 2008 Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. August 2008 Due to its long existence, tobacco has fostered many cultural items including: the usage of peace pipes, advertisements, movies, and movements in rejecting its usage. See also Anthelmintic Anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany Areca nut Chewing Tobacco Chop Chop Tobacco Cigar Cigarette Dipping tobacco Gateway drug theory Health effects of tobacco smoking History of commercial tobacco in the United States Nicotine Passive smoking Shag tobacco Smoking Smoking ban Smoking cessation Smoking culture ruyan Tobacco company Tobacco industry Tobacco plantations and slaves Tobacco mosaic virus Tobacco smoking Turkish tobacco Y1 tobacco References Notes ^ http://www.tc.columbia.edu/centers/cifas/drugsandsociety/background/chronologydruguse.html Heading: 1550-1575 Tobacco, Europe. ^ The Merck Index, 12th Ed., page 1119: entry 6611 Nicotine, Merck Co. 1996 ^ The First Nonsmoking Nation,Slate.com ^ 2008 report on tobacco smoke, World Health Organization, 2008 ^ Tobacco Facts - Why is Tobacco So Addictive? ^ Philip Morris Information Sheet ^ a b c d WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008 ^ World health report 2002: reducing risks, promoting healthy life ^ Nicotine: A Powerful Addiction. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ^ Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2006 ^ WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics ^ World Association of International Studies, Stanford University ^ Online Etymological Dictionary ^ a b Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico p. 768 ^ eg. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania, p. 149 ff. ^ They smoke with excessive eagerness ... men, women, girls and boys, all find their keenest pleasure in this way. - Dièreville describing the Mi'kmaq, c. 1699 in Port Royal. ^ Tobacco: A Study of Its Consumption in the United States, Jack Jacob Gottsegen, 1940, p. 107. ^ California Natural History Guides: 10. Early Uses of California Plant, By Edward K. Balls University of California Press, 1962 University of California Press.1 ^ Aboriginal Youth Network / Health Canada, A Tribe called Quit ^ The History of Tobacco ^ A Law of James about Tobacco ^ Jamestown, Virginia: An Overview ^ A History of the United States since the Civil War Volume: 1. by Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer; 1917. P 93. ^ Grehan, p.1 ^ Grehan, p.7 ^ a b Grehan, p.3 ^ Burns, p. 134. ^ Burns, pp. 134-135. ^ WHO | WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control WHO FCTC ^ Cerami C, Founds H, Nicholl I, Mitsuhashi T, Giordano D, Vanpatten S, Lee A, Al-Abed Y, Vlassara H, Bucala R, Cerami A 1997. Tobacco smoke is a source of toxic reactive glycation products. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of America Pnas 94 25: 13915-20. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.25.13915. PMID 9391127. ^ Imperial Tobacco Canada - Our products ^ Inside the Tobacco Deal - interview with David Kessler. PBS 2008. Retrieved on 2008-06-11. ^ Beverly Sparks, Stinging and Biting Pests of People Extension Entomologist of the University of Georgia College of Agricultural Environmental Sciences Cooperative Extension Service. Bibliography Breen, T. H. 1985. Tobacco Culture. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00596-6. Source on tobacco culture in eighteenth-century Virginia pp. 46-55 Burns, Eric. The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007. W.K. Collins and S.N. Hawks. Principles of Flue-Cured Tobacco Production 1st ion, 1993 Fuller, R. Reese Spring 2003. Perique, the Native Crop. Louisiana Life. Gately, Iain. Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. Grove Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8021-3960-4. Graves, John. Tobacco that is not Smoked in From a Limestone Ledge the sections on snuff and chewing tobacco ISBN 0-394-51238-3 Grehan, James. Smoking and Early Modern Sociability: The Great Tobacco Debate in the Ottoman Middle East Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries. The American Historical Review, Vol. III, Issue 5. 2006. 22 March 2008 http://www.historycooperative.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/journals/ahr/111.5/grehan.html Killebrew, J. B. and Myrick, Herbert 1909. Tobacco Leaf: Its Culture and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. Orange Judd Company. Source for flea beetle typology p. 243 Murphey, Rhoads. Studies on Ottoman Society and Culture: 16th-18th Centuries. Burlington, VT: Ashgate: Variorum, 2007 ISBN 9780754659310 ISBN 0754659313 Price, Jacob M. Tobacco Use and Tobacco Taxation: A battle of Interests in Early Modern Europe. Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology. Jordan Goodman, et al. New York: Routledge, 1995 166-169 ISBN 0-415-09039-3 Poche, L. Aristee 2002. Perique tobacco: Mystery and history. Tilley, Nannie May. The Bright Tobacco Industry 1860-1929 ISBN 0-405-04728-2. Source on flea beetle prevention pp. 39-43, and history of flue-cured tobacco Rivenson A., Hoffmann D., Propokczyk B. et al. Induction of lung and pancreas exocrine tumors in F344 rats by tobacco-specific and areca-derived N-nitrosamines. Cancer Res 48 6912-6917, 1988. link to abstract; free full text pdf available Schoolcraft, Henry R. Historical and Statistical Information respecting the Indian Tribes of the United States Philadelphia, 1851-57 Shechter, Relli. Smoking, Culture and Economy in the Middle East: The Egyptian Tobacco Market 1850-2000. New York: I.B. Tauris Co. Ltd., 2006 ISBN 1-84511-1370 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nicotiana_tabacum North American Association of Cigarette and Tobacco Smokers The European tobacco growers website Timeline of tobacco history Growing Nicotiana species Plot55.com Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking, Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation 2004 by the IARC. BBC report on questions re European Union partial ban on some smokeless tobacco products i.e. snus Scientists Search for Healthy Uses for Tobacco Science behind tobacco - Curing UCSF Tobacco Industry Videos Collection The Legacy Tobacco Documents Library Ottoman Back Archives and Research Centre Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Sheet - Wild tobacco Retrieved from http://en..org/wiki/Tobacco Categories: Entheogens | Herbal and fungal stimulants | Monoamine oxidase inhibitors | Native American religion | Nicotinic antagonists | TobaccoHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from May 2008 | All articles with statements | Articles with statements since May 2008 | Articles to be expanded since August 2008 | All articles to be expanded | Articles lacking sources from August 2008 | All articles lacking sources | Articles with statements since October 2007 | Cleanup from August 2008 | All pages needing cleanup | Articles needing additional references from March 2007 Views Article Discussion this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Go Search Interaction Community portal Recent changes Contact Donate to Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية Aragonés Bân-lâm-gú БългарÑ?ки Català Česky Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Galego í•œêµì–´ Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ã?slenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kiswahili Latina LatvieÅ¡u Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar МакедонÑ?ки NÄ?huatl Nederlands 日本語 ‪Norsk bokmÃ¥l‬ ‪Norsk nynorsk‬ Nouormand Polski Português РуÑ?Ñ?кий Shqip Simple English Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Türkçe УкраїнÑ?ька West-Vlams ייִדיש ä¸æ–‡ This page was last modified on 16 August 2008, at 16:1
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